FROM SILK OIL CROSS-CULTURAL CONNECTIONS ALONG THE SILK ROADS. A Curriculum Guide for Educators

FROM

S I LK OIL TO

C R O S S - C U LT U R A L C O N N E C T I O N S ALONG THE SILK ROADS A Curriculum Guide for Educators

The Silk Roads in Central Asia, Showing Ancient Kingdoms and Empires

FROM

S I LK OIL TO

C R O S S - C U LT U R A L C O N N E C T I O N S ALONG THE SILK ROADS A Curriculum Guide for Educators

FROM SILK TO OIL: Cross-Cultural Connections Along The Silk Roads

PROJECT DIRECTORS:

Nancy Jervis and Morris Rossabi (April 2003 - 2005) Marleen Kassel (September 2002 - April 2003)

EDITOR:

Martin Amster

EDITORIAL ASSISTANT:

Lier Chen

MANAGING EDITOR:

Ronald G. Knapp

ISBN: 0-9654270-9-9 Library of Congress Control Number: 2005921948 The FROM SILK TO OIL: Cross-Cultural Connections Along The Silk Roads project was made possible by a grant from the US Department of Education Title VI International Research and Studies Program, grant # PO17A020043

© 2005 China Institute in America All rights reserved © Cover photograph of the Mingsha (‘Singing Sands’) dunes near Dunhuang, Gansu province, northwest China by David Sanger Book Design by Hyun Lee of HL Design http://www.hldesignco.com

TEACHER CONSULTANTS

Pedagogy Advisors Jeanette Balantic, Hofstra University School of Education, Hempstead, NY Roberta Koza, New York University, New York, NY Florence Musiello, Ardsley Schools, Ardsley, NY Rhoda Weinstein, New York City Superintendent’s School District, New York, NY Curriculum Contributors Vincent Amato, Stuyvesant High School, New York, NY Melissa Barr-Carnahan, Briarcliff High School, Briarcliff Manor, NY Barbara Bernard, Focus National High School News Magazine, New York, NY Celeste Burton, Bayside High School, Bayside, NY Kathleen Dailey, John Jay High School, Katonah, NY Eve Eisenstadt, Hunter College High School, New York, NY Felitia Hanco*ck, Marshall Fundamental Secondary School, Pasadena, CA Elizabeth Hammer, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY Matthew Kilkelly, Half Hollow Hills High School West, Dix Hills, NY Amber Koetsier, Bronx High School of Science, Bronx, NY Pat Krizan, Whitney Point High School, Whitney Point, NY Angela Magliano, Herbert Lehman High School, Bronx, NY Jennifer Laden, Fox Lane High School, Bedford, NY Susan Perry, Archer Street Schools, Freeport, NY David Rathbun, South High School, Minneapolis, MN Sharon E. Shambourger, Life Sciences High School, New York, NY Jennifer Suri, Stuyvesant High School, New York, NY Rhoda Weinstein, New York City Superintendent’s School District, New York, NY Mark Willner, Midwood High School, Brooklyn, NY Warren Wyss, High School of Art and Design, New York, NY Classroom Field Testers Rochelle Aniziska, Samuel H. Wang Yeshiva University High School for Girls, Holliswood, NY Melissa Barr-Carnahan, Briarcliff High School, Briarcliff Manor, NY Amy Beran, Parras Middle School, Redondo Beach, CA Celeste Burton, Bayside High School, Bayside, NY Kathleen Dailey, John Jay High School, Katonah, NY Josina Dunkel, Stuyvesant High School, New York, NY Eve Eisenstadt, Hunter College High School, New York, NY Margaret Fay, Art and Design High School, New York, NY L. Hendrickson, Freeport High School, Freeport, NY Amber Koetsier, Bronx High School of Science, Bronx, NY Pat Krizan, Whitney Point High School, Whitney Point, NY Louise Kuklis, Edgemont High School, Scarsdale, NY Jennifer Laden, Fox Lane High School, Bedford, NY Sarah Lederman, Dalton Schools, New York, NY Anita Lichtenstein, Stuyvesant High School, New York, NY Angela Magliano, Herbert Lehman High School, Bronx, NY Tricia Maloney, John Jay High School, Katonah, NY Maureen Overall, United Nations International School, New York, NY Susan Perry, Archer Street Schools, Freeport, NY David Rathbun, South High School, Minneapolis, MN Sheen Saleem, Half Hollow Hills High School West, Dix Hills, NY Benyonne Schwortz, Bayside High School, Bayside, NY Sharon E. Shambourger, Life Sciences High School, New York, NY Mark Willner, Midwood High School, Brooklyn, NY Warren Wyss, High School of Art and Design, New York, NY

iii

Table of Contents

Preface: China Institute’s “From Silk to Oil” Project . . . Nancy Jervis

Introduction: The Silk Roads-A Resource For Educators & Students . . . Morris Rossabi

PART I Essays—From Silk to Oil 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads . . . Morris Rossabi

2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads . . . Morris Rossabi

3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads . . . George Saliba

4. Religions Along The Silk Roads . . . Chun-Fang Yü

5. Art Along The Silk Roads . . . Stefano Carboni

PART II Curriculum Units—From Silk to Oil Maps—The Silk Roads

A Chronological Table—The Silk Roads

1. Geography Along The Silk Roads A. The Multiple Environments of Eurasia and Inner Asia B. Traditional vs. Modern Uses of Natural Resources: The Case of the Aral Sea C. Oases, Towns, and Caravans

59 72 82

2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads D. E. F. G. H. I.

The Han, the Xiongnu, and China’s Traditional Foreign Relations The Spread of Islam (634-750 CE) China Under Mongol Rule: The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 CE) China’s Uyghurs—A Disaffected Muslim Minority From Tsars to Commissars to Independence: The Kazakhs and the Russians Persia and the East-West Flow of Goods on the Silk Road

Table of Contents

103 112 126 141 153 164

Table of Contents

3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads J. K. L. M.

East-West Exchange: Silk, Paper, Porcelain West-East Exchange: Astronomy The Silk Road Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow Two Legendary Travelers: Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta

179 188 203 211

4. Religions Along The Silk Roads N. O. P. Q. R.

Central Ideas of Buddhism Central Ideas of Islam Dunhuang and Its Buddhist Communities Xuanzang’s Pilgrimage to India Magical Pilgrims on the Silk Road: The Adventure in the “Cart-Slow Kingdom” from Journey to the West

227 244 256 268 278

5. Art Along The Silk Roads S. T. U. V. W.

Buddhist Images: Cultural Exchange Between India and China Mosques in the Islamic World and China Wang Zhaojun: A Tribute Princess Brings Peace to the Northern Frontier Two Mogao Cave Paintings and Two Jataka Tales The Arts Travel the Silk Road

295 308 319 332 340

Glossary Bibliography Additional Resources China and Asia-Related Outreach Centers + Museums

351 354 363 367

Acknowledgments/Credits

371

About the Essay Authors About the Project Directors and Editors

374 375

Table of Contents

About TEACH CHINA

The Teach China program provides K12 educators with numerous opportunities for professional development. It not only offers courses, workshops, and seminars on traditional and modern China and other East Asia-related topics, but also conducts multi-week study tours for selected groups of teachers. In addition, Teach China is involved in the ongoing creation of accurate and up-to-date curriculum in collaboration with an expanding group of scholar-consultants. About CHINA INSTITUTE

CHINA INSTITUTE IN AMERICA was founded in 1926 by a group of distinguished American and Chinese educators, including John Dewey and Hu Shih. It is the oldest bicultural organization in America focused exclusively on China. China Institute is a non-proﬁt cultural and educational institution that promotes the understanding, appreciation, and enjoyment of Chinese civilization, and provides the historical context for understanding contemporary China. Visit the China Institute website http://www.chinainstitute.org

WITH THANKS: Many individuals and two organizations contributed to the success of this project. I would like first to thank the U.S. Department of Education and Jose Martinez, From Silk to Oil’s program officer. He remained supportive through the various setbacks and delays that any long-term project endures. From Silk to Oil would not have been possible without the generous support of the Freeman Foundation, which has supported Teach China programs since its inception. Marleen Kassel, Teach China’s Director for seven years, oversaw all of the preparatory projects that led to this volume. In many ways, this is her project. Chana Sommer, Teach China’s manager until early 2004, coordinated the field-testing and the evaluation of the units. Barbara Miller conducted the evaluation. Although everyone who contributed photographs is indicated in the acknowledgments section, we especially thank Daniel C. Waugh of the University of Washington, Lier Chen, and Marleen Kassel for their numerous fine images. China Institute’s France Pepper was helpful in researching Buddhist images. Leslie Kimmelman copyedited an earlier draft of the book.

Martin Amster, editor, and Lier Chen, editorial assistant, were crucial to the project from the outset and have accomplished much more than their job descriptions imply. Their colleague, Jen Salen, later busy on other projects, made important contributions at earlier phases of this book and provided a sounding board throughout the project. Torrey Whitman, former president of China Institute, encouraged us in the initial phases. Two individuals deserve special appreciation: Morris Rossabi, whose groundbreaking scholarship and dedication to the professional development of teachers deserves a special award; and Ronald G. Knapp, as managing editor, brought From Silk to Oil to fruition as a book. Without them, the volume would not exist.

Nancy Jervis, Vice President and Director of Education, China Institute

Table of Contents

Preface CHINA INSTITUTE’S FROM SILK TO OIL PROJECT

Nancy Jervis

What used to be the study of American and European history has increasingly become the study of world history. While nation-states and societies, including great civilizations such as China, were once studied as more or less discrete units, this way of studying history is no longer tenable. Our increased awareness of our own contemporary global interconnectedness informs the study of history today, causing us to re-think much of what we once took for granted. This process of re-thinking history is evidenced in many ways in our classrooms: through the 1996 publication of the National Standards for History, through a new Advanced Placement test in World History that reﬂects these standards, and via the publication of new textbooks that emphasize global interconnectedness. From Silk to Oil: Cross-Cultural Connections along the Silk Roads was designed with two key features in mind. First, it is multidisciplinary, interweaving the themes of geography, ethnic and political history, exchange of goods and ideas, religions, and the arts. Second, it is historical, tracing aspects of these different themes from earliest times through the modern period into the contemporary world in which we live. From Silk to Oil is especially effective in dealing with conceptual and organizational approaches relating to comparative civilizations, civilizations in global context, interregional history, and thematic history, four approaches suggested by the National Standards for History. Resulting from a major attempt at nationwide educational reform, the National Standards for History 1 deﬁne history as . . . a broadly integrative field, recounting and analyzing human aspirations and strivings in various spheres of human activity: social, political, scientific/technological, economic, and cultural. Studying history—inquiring into families, communities, states, nations, and various peoples of the world—at once engages students in the lives, aspirations, struggles, accomplishments, and failures of real people, in all these aspects of their lives.2

This human-centered history is divided into nine eras stretching from the beginnings of human society to the twentieth century since 1945. Of these nine eras, From Silk to Oil is especially relevant in terms of the following ﬁve: Era 3—Classical Traditions, Major Religions, and Giant Empires, 1000 BCE-300 CE

During this period, Africa and Eurasia together moved in the direction of forming a single world of human interchange. Era 4—Expanding Zones of Exchange and Encounter, 300-1000 CE

The spread of Buddhism in the early centuries of the Common Era is perhaps the most important example of cultural exchange along the Silk Roads. Also, the subsequent rise of Islam and Islamic empires indelibly stamped the history of Eurasia and the Silk Roads. Era 5—Intensified Hemispheric Interactions, 1000-1500 CE

Mongol control of Eurasia in the 13th and 14th centuries made it possible for merchants and travelers to go from the Mediterranean to the China Sea under Mongol protection. 1

For the electronic version of the National Standards for History, visit the National Center for History in the Schools website http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/nchs/standards/ National Standards for History, 47.

Preface

Era 8—Half Century of Crisis and Achievement, 1900-1945

Division, conﬂict, and territorial rivalry are a pervasive element of Central Asia’s often tragic modern history. Era 9—The Twentieth Century Since 1945: Promises and Paradoxes

The promises and paradoxes of the decades following the Second World War indeed are reﬂected in the serious problems facing contemporary Central Asia. Each unit in From Silk to Oil consists of two parts. The ﬁrst is a conventional lesson plan: Essential Question(s), Anticipatory Set, Context, Rationale, Time Required, Instructional Resources, Procedure, Whole Group Reﬂection, Instructional Modiﬁcation, and Application. These are followed by classroom material for students: written and visual primary documents, maps, tables, even a Silk Roads board game. Together these not only cultivate reading comprehension and visual literacy skills, but also encourage critical thinking and stimulate interest in major issues that bridge past and present. The volume also contains a glossary; lists of additional resources including readings and websites; and a CD with the entire text and color images—including hotlinks to relevant websites—in PDF format. From Silk to Oil is designed to be self-contained, that is to say, teachers can, if they wish, prepare for class without needing to seek outside information. The units also stand alone in that all the information needed to teach a unit will be found within that unit. From Silk to Oil is the result of the past successes of China Institute’s Teach China professional development program for educators. In 2001, Teach China conducted two related institutes for teachers, a four-week NEH Summer Institute entitled China and the World, and a week-long institute on the Silk Roads, both taught by the lead scholar and co-project director of From Silk to Oil, Morris Rossabi. Out of these institutes and a subsequent study tour to the Silk Roads region, a group of specially trained high school master teachers evolved. These teachers have been instrumental in creating dynamic, timely, and accurate curriculum units for use in the classroom. An academic advisory committee led by Morris Rossabi oversaw the project through all phases. They also wrote introductions for each unit and, together with the editor, vetted for accuracy all materials written by the master teachers. Upon completion of the ﬁrst draft, the materials were pre-tested and evaluated nationwide in classrooms and then revised based upon the results of the pre-test. As a multidisciplinary curriculum complying with the National Standards for History, From Silk to Oil will be useful to educators in the social studies, arts, and humanities all across the country. The key intended audience is high school teachers of world history, global studies, social studies, geography, literature, and art. However, sections of the curriculum will also be suitable for use in advanced middle school, community college, as well as lower level university survey courses. China Institute has designed the project to be utilized in many ways. From Silk to Oil can be used as the main set of materials for a course on China and the Silk Roads through history, or educators can select individual themes to teach speciﬁc topics of interest (each unit is designed to stand alone). They may also choose to use individual documents as supplements to existing textbooks and classroom materials. They may also elect to use the background readings to enhance their own knowledge of a particular topic. Finally, the list of resources will aid students in doing individual research projects or term papers. China’s inner Asian frontier, the land-locked area serving as the geographical setting for the Silk Roads, provides us with an excellent case study of global interconnectedness over time. This region of dramatic landscapes inhabited by peoples of various cultures and religions will grip the imaginations of both students and teachers. What better subject to bring to life the modern telling of history?

Preface

Introduction

THE SILK ROADS An Educational Resource by Morris Rossabi

Updated and Revised by the Author Originally Published in EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA Volume 4, Number 1, Spring 1999 http://www.aasianst.org/eaa-toc.htm

Reprinted with the permission of the Association for Asian Studies

The Silk Roads, an incurably romantic subject, which offers a splendid source for secondary school teachers and students alike, linked the civilizations of Eurasia for much of premodern history, starting as early as the second century B.C.E., if not earlier. China, Central Asia, West Asia, and, to a lesser extent, Europe, were in touch with each other via the Silk Roads. The economic signiﬁcance of their contacts in pre-1500 history may have been exaggerated, but their cultural impact can hardly be overstated, and the political inﬂuences, particularly during the era of the Mongol empire, have only, of late, received much attention.

Major themes of cultural borrowing, interactions of civilizations, and the development of new economic institutions and technologies to facilitate commerce, together with the sheer excitement of travel and adventure, can be conveyed through historical descriptions of the Silk Roads. East and West Asian civilizations that have often received short shrift in the secondary-school curriculum can be brought to life through study of the history of the Silk Roads. Even nineteenth and twentieth-century relations between Asia and Europe, when the Silk Roads appear to have lost much of their signiﬁcance,

Introduction: The Silk Roads—A Resource for Educators & Students

can be proﬁtably analyzed through examination of clashes of interests along these old East-West caravan routes. As oil and gas have been discovered in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan, major thoroughfares on the old Silk Roads, these regions may become known as the “Oil Roads” and could become as signiﬁcant as in the past. A good pedagogical device in teaching about the Silk Roads is to focus on speciﬁc individuals or occasionally composites—travelers, merchants, missionaries, adventurers, entertainers, and others—who embody the central historical themes. Teachers are blessed with a panoply of fascinating ﬁgures who played roles in the long history of the Silk Roads. More fortuitous still, quite a number either wrote accounts of their travels or were themselves the leading ﬁgures of contemporaneous histories, diaries, or biographies. Primary sources, often laced with excitement, humor, and insights, thus can constitute the core of a unit on the Silk Roads. The teacher naturally may need to select and edit these accounts to eliminate unfamiliar names of persons or places or irrelevant recital of events that might encumber or deﬂect the students’ interest. Early 1900s Camel Caravan

(Photographer: Harold Loucks)

Growing scholarly and pedagogical concern for global history has resulted in the writing of secondary studies of great value to teachers seeking to impart educational themes related to the Silk Roads. Jerry Bentley’s Old World Encounters, with its emphasis on cultural relations and interactions, offers compact surveys of religious and technological diffusion, while Philip Curtin’s Cross-Cultural Trade in World History focuses on commerce, with descriptions of trade in speciﬁc commodities. S. M. Adshead’s Central Asia in World History demonstrates the signiﬁcance of that relatively unstudied region, which travelers and caravans needed to traverse, and my own “The ‘Decline’ of the Central Asian Caravan Trade” analyzes the essential conditions for the proper operation of the Silk Roads. In Plagues and Peoples, William McNeill describes the diffusion of diseases both via the Silk Roads and seaborne commerce. Though Janet Abu-Lughod’s Before European Hegemony makes a compelling argument for the importance of the Silk Roads trade, it is marred by factual errors and must be used with care. All these works are available in paperback editions and are thus accessible to teachers who seek additional information. Silk Roads history may be conveniently, if somewhat artiﬁcially, divided into four periods. Teachers may not wish to be bound to this scheme, but it offers a useful means of describing the ebbs and ﬂows of this link between the East and the West. The ﬁrst period lasted from around the second century, B.C.E.. to the second century, C.E., the era of the initial development of the various Silk Roads and the establishment of the oases and towns which connected the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-C.E. 220) of China with Central Asia and West Asia. The collapse of the Han and of the Parthian Empire of Persia diminished commerce and travel along the East-West trade routes. The second period stretched from 4

Introduction: The Silk Roads—A Resource for Educators & Students

the seventh to the late ninth century, the time of the cosmopolitan Tang dynasty of China and of the expansion of Islam from the Arab world through Persia to Central Asia. The gradual decline and downfall of the Tang in the late ninth and early tenth centuries and the growing turbulence in Central Asia resulted in virtual cessation or at least dramatic reduction of commerce on the Silk Roads. The third period, which encompassed the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, coincided with the rise and expansion of the Mongol empire, whose leaders favored trade and whose conquests led to a Pax Mongolica over much of the traditional Silk Roads, facilitating trade and travel along many of these routes. The disintegration of the Mongol Khanates, together with the discovery of the sea routes from Europe to Asia in the late ﬁfteenth century, disrupted the Silk Roads trade and led to decline in parts of Central Asia. Ocean-borne commerce superseded overland trade on the Silk Roads. The fourth period, which spans the late nineteenth century to the present, started with the Tsarist Russian expansion into Central Asia in the 1850s and 1860s and with the explorations and other activities of Western and Japanese scientists, adventurers, and scholars in the region in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It then continued into Nationalist Chinese, Tsarist Russian, Japanese, USSR, and Chinese Communist rivalry and domination in Central Asia, the indigenous ethnic and religious revival in response to such foreign control, and the establishment of independent countries in the area in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The Silk Roads may at present witness a resurgence, but they must now be referred to as the Oil and Gas Roads, as Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and perhaps Mongolia gush forth with the new gold of petroleum, a resource which offers the region greater signiﬁcance in the modern world. Study of the Silk Roads offers opportunities to consider major themes in Asian history-the signiﬁcance of trade, the spread of religions, the diffusion of technologies and artistic motifs, and the development of powerful military forces and empires. Yet perhaps even more appealing for students is the cast of characters directly involved in Silk Roads history. Teachers will want to select their own casts, but a brief description of ﬁgures in each of the four periods designated earlier may prove useful. One caveat: four of the following eight are real ﬁgures, and the rest are composites, though the latter reﬂect the activities and times of attested individuals who traveled along the Silk Roads but who did not leave written accounts.

BEGINNING OF THE SILK ROADS Setting the stage for the ﬁrst period is a Princess of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.E.-C.E. 220) sent to marry the Shanyu or ruler of a pastoral nomadic people known in the Chinese sources as the Xiongnu, who tended their animals in the area of modern Mongolia and southern Siberia. This group, which needed trade with China, became increasingly bellicose when denied such commerce. Ecological crises also could have prompted them to raid Chinese settlements to obtain the goods they required. The Han leaders, who professed to be economically self-sufficient, tried to limit commercial and diplomatic relations with these peoples, whom they perceived as “barbarians.” Yet awareness of the threat posed by the Xiongnu cavalry and armies compelled the Chinese dynasty to seek peace. One of their tactics was marital alliances, and thus the dispatch of the Princess. The story of the Princess may be used to illustrate Chinese attitudes towards foreigners as well as the differences between sedentary agricultural civilizations and nomadic pastoral societies, differences that would have a dramatic impact on the Silk Roads trade. The elaborate philosophical systems, the wellplanned capital cities, the carefully devised hierarchical and social structures, the luxury products (jade, silks, etc.), and the sophisticated cuisines of the sedentary civilizations can be contrasted to the animalcentered economy, the more independent and mobile lifestyle, and the less luxurious and more precarious existence of the pastoral nomadic societies. The Princess’ initial distaste for her new, rougher surIntroduction: The Silk Roads—A Resource for Educators & Students

roundings and her eventual accommodation and even admiration for the tribal society into which she was adopted offer useful illustrations of tolerance for and adjustment toward other styles of life. Marital alliances aside, the Han-Xiongnu relationship remained fraught with conﬂict, partly because the Chinese denied badly needed trade to the pastoral nomads. At the same time, economic difficulties, on occasion, compelled the Xiongnu to raid Chinese border settlements. Deciding to seek assistance against its bellicose neighbors, around 139 B.C.E. the Han sent Zhang Qian, the second of our Silk Roads ﬁgures, to Central Asia to forge such an alliance. Zhang traveled through the oases and towns that would eventually constitute the Silk Roads and reached Central Asia but was rebuffed in his efforts to secure allies. Nonetheless, his mission promoted trade because he described the coveted “blood-sweating” horses of Central Asia to the Han court and brought silk to the wider attention of the peoples residing west of China. Thus demand for Chinese silk increased in Central and West Asia, leading to the development of the ﬁrst epoch in the Silk Roads trade. Not only would the story of Zhang Qian be absorbing to students, but they could also, through reading accounts about Zhang and other early travelers, recognize the complexities entailed in the proper operation of the Silk Roads trade, which required (1) a string of oases and towns offering shelter, food, and water to travelers; (2) guard stations to warn merchants of dangers en route; (3) interpreters and translators; (4) guides and camel grooms; (5) capital to fund the caravans; (6) written or oral descriptions of the routes; and (7) stable governments in at least China and Persia to keep the caravans free of bandit harassment. These conditions persisted for several centuries or until the collapse of the Han. Without a central government in China, commerce along the Silk Roads steadily diminished.

HEIGHT OF THE SILK ROADS TRADE However, cultural contacts among civilizations, via the Silk Roads, endured, and Xuanzang, the third of our ﬁgures, reﬂects such continued relations. Facing a fragmented and politically unstable world, the post-Han Chinese sought solace in Buddhism, a religion that reached China from India along the Silk Roads oases and towns. Seeking greater understanding of Buddhism, Chinese monks traveled to India. Xuanzang, the most renowned of these Chinese Buddhist monks, journeyed to India in the seventh century to study with Buddhist masters, visit important religious sites, and gather Buddhist texts and artifacts. His travel account and his adventures provide teachers with a lively means of explaining Buddhist principles as well as showing Buddhist art and ritual objects. Xuanzang’s voyage ushered in a ﬂourishing era in the history of the Silk Roads. The Tang dynasty (618-907) of China welcomed foreigners and foreign trade. A Persian merchant and a Central Asian dancer, the next two of our ﬁgures, represent the travelers of this time. The Persian merchant, a Muslim, can be used to indicate the rapid spread of such religions as Islam, Zoroastrianism, and Nestorianism throughout Asia along the Silk Roads. Accounts based on the travels of such traders yield descriptions of the lively bazaars in the Central Asian towns and in the great Chinese capital of Chang’an (or modern Xi’an), of the products exchanged, and of the conditions of commerce. The instructor can use the Central Asian dancer, who can be visualized through the Tang tricolored ceramic ﬁgurines of foreign entertainers (examples of which may be found in almost any U.S. museum with a signiﬁcant collection of Chinese art), to reveal cultural diffusion-in this case, of music and dance-and to show activities at the court.

MONGOL HEGEMONY After the fall of the Tang, trade along the Silk Roads declined, and it revived only with the rise of the Mongols. During this time, China was a “lesser empire” and could neither dominate the nearby oases 6

Introduction: The Silk Roads—A Resource for Educators & Students

and towns nor protect caravans heading westward. In the thirteenth century, the Mongols erupted from Mongolia and created the largest contiguous land empire in world history. They conquered and ruled much of the territory through which the Silk Roads traversed and encouraged the greatest ﬂow of merchants, craftsmen, and missionaries across Eurasia until that time. Marco Polo, the next of our ﬁgures and arguably the most renowned traveler ever, was one of these merchants, and his account, which was actually written by the storyteller Rusticello, provides teachers with lively and colorful anecdotes with which to describe and address such themes as: (1) the organization of empires; (2) Mongol military structure and strategy; (3) the status of women in nomadic pastoral societies; (4) technological diffusion; (5) toleration of the religions of subjugated peoples as a tactic for governance; and (6) the Mongol invasions as a possible source of the Black Death. Errors of commission and omission in Marco Polo’s work have spurred some to question whether he actually reached China, a subject that could also stimulate lively discussion in the classroom. The collapse of the Mongol empire and the late ﬁfteenth-century discovery of the sea route from Europe to Asia led to a precipitous decline of the Silk Roads trade in Central Asia, the crossroads for this commerce, until the late nineteenth century. The ﬂourishing oases and towns sank into poverty, and nomadic empires, such as the Xiongnu and the Mongol, could no longer match the advanced military technology (guns, riﬂes, cannons, etc.) and the growing populations of the neighboring civilizations. In fact, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Qing China and Tsarist Russia gained control over these regions and ruled what was by then a mostly Turkic Muslim population. Central Asia and the Silk Roads seemed to disappear from the historical stage.

SILK ROADS IN MODERN TIMES The late nineteenth-century scramble for colonies in Asia revived interest in Central Asia and the Silk Roads region. Great Britain and Russia were the ﬁrst to compete for inﬂuence in the zone in a struggle referred to as the Great Game. Later, Japan joined in the competition. Diplomats and soldiers were not the only participants: scientists, geographers, adventurers, and archeologists were lured by the treasures of the Silk Roads. Albert Von Le Coq (1860-1930), our next protagonist, was an amateur explorer and archaeologist who was drawn to the art and artifacts of the region. He gathered precious manuscripts and chipped out Buddhist and Manichaean cave paintings in Bezeklik and Kharakhojo and sent them to the Ethnological Museum in Berlin, justifying what appeared to be theft by asserting that he was saving these works from defacement and vandalism. Ironically, the Allied bombing of Berlin in World War II destroyed much of his collection. Von Le Coq’s story lends itself to provocative classroom discussion of the ethics of the late nineteenth-century archaeologists and, for that matter, twentieth-century museum curators from the so-called developed world who have either spirited out or purchased works of art, regarded by some native peoples as part of the national patrimony, from so-called underdeveloped countries.

The German amateur explorer and archaeologist Albert Von Le Coq (standing, far right) on the Silk Roads expedition Photo courtesy of Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin

One twentieth-century reaction to such foreign cultural hegemony and political domination has been an explosive rise of nationalism among the previously subjugated peoples who resided along the Silk Roads. The ﬁve Central Asian states of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, which had been ruled by Russia and later by the USSR, each declared independence in the Introduction: The Silk Roads—A Resource for Educators & Students

early 1990s. Simultaneously, Mongolia broke away from Soviet overlordship. Stirrings of discontent have appeared in the Chinese-dominated lands of Xinjiang (with its largely Turkic population), Tibet, and Inner Mongolia, but the People’s Republic of China has managed, by alternate use of force and persuasion, to retain control. Our ﬁnal protagonist, a Uyghur nationalist from Xinjiang, could embody the recent transformations in the region. Born in 1960, this man’s early education was disrupted by the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-early 1970s) when his school was closed and by the government’s mandating use of the Chinese language in Xinjiang. Repressive measures against Islam during this period prevented him from observing his faith. However, the liberalization after the Cultural Revolution beneﬁted the young Uyghur because the government wished to portray itself as a protector of the ethnic minorities within China. It reopened mosques and permitted the reprinting of The Qur’an. Our protagonist capitalized on the new policies to gain admission to university to study the history and archaeology of Xinjiang and eventually, after graduation, to take part in several excavations in his native region. Paradoxically, with success came his awareness that the Chinese occupied the leading positions in government and the economy in Xinjiang. He joined an underground nationalist movement that sought greater autonomy or independence from China and participated in demonstrations in Urumchi, the capital of Xinjiang, during the Tiananmen protest movement in 1989. Despite the government’s suppression of the movement in Tiananmen and other locations throughout China, he persists to the present in his efforts to achieve greater independence for the Uyghurs. The growing economic signiﬁcance of the old Silk Roads gives him conﬁdence for the future. The oil and gas discovered in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Mongolia have inspired visions of a revival of the Silk Roads in the form of oil pipelines and of a resurgence of trade throughout the region, potentially offering great economic leverage to him and his people. The Silk Roads, from their inception to the present, provide the teacher with an ideal vehicle to introduce students to Asian cultures. Political history, economic institutions, art, religions, technology, and geography all can be discussed courtesy of the Silk Roads, and many Asian civilizations can be interrelated through this glorious and colorful vehicle. This work is intended for secondary-school teachers, but students might ﬁnd it useful as well. Both teachers and students can make use of the introductory essays, which are written by scholars in the ﬁeld. The lesson plans and the bibliography are designed for teachers.

Introduction: The Silk Roads—A Resource for Educators & Students

Sources for Teachers

I. GENERAL Good maps, bibliographies, and photographs and descriptions of the art and artifacts produced or traded along the Silk Roads may be found in the catalogs as well as the associated websites for ﬁve Silk Roads exhibitions: Susan Whitﬁeld, ed., The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith (London: The British Library, 2004); Linda Komaroff and Stefano Carboni, The Legacy of Genghis Khan (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2002); Anne Wardwell and James Watt, with an essay by Morris Rossabi, When Silk Was Gold (New York: Abrams, 1997); John Vollmer, et al., Silk Roads, China Ships (Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum, 1983); and Along the Ancient Silk Routes (New York: Berlin State Museum and Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982). NHK, Japan Broadcasting Corporation (1177 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York 10036) has produced 12 ﬁfty-minute videos entitled “The Silk Road: An Ancient World of Adventure.” The Department of Education at The Asia Society (725 Park Avenue, New York, New York 10021) has produced a prototype CD-ROM on the travels of Xuanzang. The American Forum for Global Education has compiled a resource guide entitled Spotlight on Inner Asia: The Bizarre Bazaar (2000), which incorporates a lengthy section on the Silk Roads. Useful websites with links to numerous additional sites include http://www.silk-road.com and http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/

Other valuable works, most of which are profusely illustrated, include: Frances Wood, The Silk Road (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Luce Boulnois, et al., Silk Road: Monks, Warriors, and Merchants in the Silk Road (Hong Kong: Odyssey, 2004 rev. ed.); and Jonathan Tucker, The Silk Road: Art and History (Chicago: Art Media Resources, 2003).

II. SPECIFIC ERAS On Xiongnu-Chinese interactions, see Nicola Di Cosmo, Ancient China and Its Enemies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, rev. ed); Sechin Jagchid and Van Jay Symons, Peace, War, and Trade Along the Great Wall (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989); Yu Ying-shih, Trade and Expansion in Han China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967); and Thomas Barﬁeld, The Perilous Frontier (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1989). On nomads in general, see Anatoly Khazanov, Nomads and the Outside World (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994, 2nd ed.). A primary source for Zhang Qian has been translated in Burton Watson, Records of the Grand Historian of China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961) vol. 2, 264-274. One useful secondary account is Jeannette Mirsky, The Great Chinese Travelers (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 13-25. Sally Wriggins has written a readable book on Xuanzang entitled Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996). The great Chinese novel translated as Journey to the West (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977-1983, 4 vols.) by Anthony Yu offers a ﬁctional portrait (along with much else) of the Buddhist pilgrim. Art Treasures of Dunhuang (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Company, 1981) is one among many works with splendid plates of the Buddhist art that Xuanzang might have seen on his travels. Also useful is Liu Xinju, Silk and Religion (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996). Richard Foltz offers a survey in his Religions of the Silk Road (New York: Palmgrave Macmillan, 2000) For visual representations of the Persian merchant and the Central Asian dancer, see Ezekiel Schloss, Foreigners in Ancient Chinese Art (New York: China Institute, 1969) and Jane G. Mahler, The Westerners Among the Figurines of the T’ang Dynasty of China (Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1959). Morris Rossabi, “China and the Islamic World” in Bernard Lewis and Edmund Leites, eds., As Others See Us: Mutual Perceptions, East and West (New York: International Society for the Comparative Study of Civilizations, 1985) provides background for the role of Islam on the Silk Roads, and Edward Schafer, The Golden Peaches of Samarkand (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963) offers a wealth of information on the products, the people, and the cultures of the Silk Roads during Tang times. Susan

Introduction: The Silk Roads—A Resource for Educators & Students

Whitﬁeld provides a composite portrait of travelers along the Silk Roads in her Life Along the Silk Road (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). For sources (including translations of his work, novels, ﬁlms, and plays) on Marco Polo, see Morris Rossabi, Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 261-262, footnote 170. Frances Wood, Did Marco Polo Go to China? (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996) argues that Marco Polo never reached China, a contention that has been refuted by specialists on the Yuan dynasty. On the Mongols, see David Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1986); and Paul Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005 reprint, with new preface by Morris Rossabi). The A & E television network (235 East 45 Street, New York, New York 10017) has produced Marco Polo and Genghis Khan, two 50-minute videos, for its Biography series. Peter Hopkirk, Foreign Devils on the Silk Road (London: John Murray, 1980) is a highly readable account of the exploits of Von Le Coq and other adventurers on the Silk Roads in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Susan Whitﬁeld, et al. provide views of another explorer on the Silk Roads in Aurel Stein on the Silk Road (Chicago: Serindia Publications, 2004). A personal view of developments among the Uyghurs at present is Justin Rudelson, Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China’s Silk Road (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997). Latest developments along the contemporary Silk Roads can be followed in the http://www.eurasianet.org website; its Central Eurasia Project provides information on the latest news, international involvement, and cultures of Georgia, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Mongolia, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan. The Silk Road Foundation publishes a very useful newsletter, with excellent articles, which is available on line at http://www.silkroadfoundation.org

Secondary Sources Abu-Lughod, Janet. Before European Hegemony. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. Adshead, S. M. Central Asia in World History. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993. Bentley, Jerry. Old World Encounters. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Curtin, Philip. Cross-Cultural Trade in World History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. McNeill, William. Plagues and Peoples. New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1977. Rossabi, Morris. “The ‘Decline’ of the Central Asian Caravan Trade” in James Tracy, ed., The Rise of Merchant Empires. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Morris Rossabi is Professor of Chinese and Inner Asian History at the City University of New York and author of Khubilai Khan (1988), Voyager from Xanadu (1992), and China and Inner Asia (1975). He has contributed to The Legacy of Genghis Khan, an exhibition of Ilkhanid Iranian art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and has also published Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005).

Introduction: The Silk Roads—A Resource for Educators & Students

PART I

Essays FROM SILK TO OIL Essay 1 GEOGRAPHY ALONG THE SILK ROADS . . . Morris Rossabi Essay 2 ETHNIC RELATIONS AND POLITICAL HISTORY ALONG THE SILK ROADS . . . Morris Rossabi Essay 3 EXCHANGE OF GOODS AND IDEAS ALONG THE SILK ROADS . . . George Saliba Essay 4 RELIGIONS ALONG THE SILK ROADS . . . Chun-Fang Yü Essay 5 ART ALONG THE SILK ROADS . . . Stefano Carboni

1. Geography Along The Silk Roads Morris Rossabi

The Silk Roads, which linked China, India, West Asia, and Europe, via Central and Inner Asia1, are an “incurably romantic subject.”2 Over the centuries, caravans that traversed part or all of this vast territory encountered some of the world’s most daunting terrain. Treacherous deserts and lofty mountains impeded travel, yet merchants, missionaries, entertainers, craftsmen, and other voyagers continued their journeys along these roads from the second century, BCE on, particularly when powerful dynasties, which could deter bandits, ruled China and Persia. Four ecological zones, all of which were landlocked, marked Inner Asia. Forests and lakes characterized southern Siberia, northern Mongolia, and northern Manchuria, fostering a nomadic hunting and ﬁshing economy. Grasslands dominated the areas to the south and were peopled by pastoral nomads, principally in Mongolia, northern Xinjiang, and Kazakhstan. The inhospitable Gobi and Taklamakan deserts were still farther south, with oases and even large towns, whose inhabitants survived on a self-sufficient agriculture and both short-distance and Silk Roads trade. Melting snow from the Tianshan, Nanshan, and Hindukush mountains provided water for the oases and, in the lower elevations, offered grass for herders in summer. Indeed, these zones were not mutually exclusive. Farmers and herders often shared the steppes, and herders frequently hunted and ﬁshed to supplement their incomes. Inhabitants of all four regions shared one characteristic—a need for commerce. Eking out a fragile existence and unable to maintain a surplus to survive droughts or heavy snows, pastoral nomads had to trade either with China or Persia, the two mostly sedentary civilizations. They also beneﬁted from the long-distance trade in such luxury items as silk, transporting these goods through Inner Asia, particularly after the second century BCE missions of Zhang Qian initiated commerce between China and Central Asia.

Zhang Qian and the Western Regions The development of the Silk Roads trade stemmed from defensive measures against the Xiongnu, a pastoral nomadic confederation based in Mongolia and stretching all the way to northern Xinjiang. Commercial and territorial disputes between China’s Han dynasty and the Xiongnu resulted in repeated battles. Such conflicts prompted Emperor Wu (r. 140-87 BCE) to dispatch an expedition of approximately a hundred men to Central Asia to forge an alliance against the Xiongnu. However, one of the Xiongnu tribes captured Zhang Qian, the leader of the embassy, and detained him for ten years. He finally managed to escape and reached the territory of a group whom the Xiongnu had expelled from northwest China. The group’s leader rejected Zhang’s offer of an alliance. Nonetheless, Zhang’s mission was not a failure. He returned to China following recapture and a second escape from the Xiongnu, and offered a report on his travels. The Emperor was delighted with the report, specifically Zhang’s account of the superior, so-called “blood-sweating” horses of Central Asia. Simultaneously, the peoples of Central Asia learned about silk from Zhang’s mission and developed a craving for it, both for themselves and for trade with peoples farther west. Shortly thereafter, commerce was initiated, and the Silk Roads trade was born.

Central Asia comprises the Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang and the currently independent countries of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, as well as northern Afghanistan. Inner Asia is more inclusive and includes Central Asia, Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, southern Siberia, and Tibet. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1954- ), IV:3, p.17.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

The Silk Roads in Traditional Times

The courses of the Silk Roads varied according to the paths across the Taklamakan desert. All followed the same route from Chang’an (modern Xi’an) to Dunhuang, which eventually emerged as a center of Buddhist learning and art. The southern route then entered the Tarim river basin and skirted the northern ﬂanks of the Kunlun Mountains. The most renowned oasis on this route was Khotan, the source of some of China’s ﬁnest jades and still another important Buddhist center. From there, travelers either journeyed to India or continued adjacent to the Kunlun until they reached Kashgar and joined voyagers who had taken the northern route. The latter had made a sharp detour to the north from Dunhuang and crossed a section of the Gobi desert, where water was available approximately every other day, before reaching safety at Hami. They then followed the southern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains to Turfan and reconnoitered with the southern route travelers at Kashgar. More desert, mountain, and river crossings awaited the intrepid traveler. Journeying through the Terek-davan pass, he reached Samarkand and Bukhara, two great commercial emporia that eventually became twin jewels of Islamic architecture. After trading with local merchants, he traveled south to Merv and, through desert terrain, to Nishapur. Heading south of the Caspian Sea, some travelers headed to Damascus and the Mediterranean, others to Arabia and Egypt, and still others to Constantinople. One variation was an even more southerly route from Samarkand to Isfahan and Shiraz, in Iran, and then to the Persian Gulf. Such long-distance trade required time, capital, and halting places. One writer estimates that the average journey from Beijing to Samarkand in Ming times (1368-1644) took six months. Governments defrayed the costs of official embassies, but merchants and other private individuals bore the expenses of most caravans. Oases and towns, free from bandit harassment, were essential because they offered supplies, fresh pack animals and horses, and hostelries for fatigued travelers.

Oases and Towns Along the Silk Roads When Chinese dynasties controlled Hami, an oasis situated along the southern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains, the Silk Roads trade flourished. The Han (206 BCE-220 CE) and the Tang (618-907) dynasties and the Mongols either conquered or dominated it, facilitating its use as an important halting place for travelers. Through the Tang, records indicate that its population amounted to about 10,000 people and also mention that the inhabitants were ethnically heterogeneous. A variety of ethnic and religious groups lived in or passed through the oasis, meaning that merchants traveling through Hami could often find inhabitants who spoke their language. Inhabitants were so hospitable that, according to Marco Polo, they lent their wives to weary travelers. Though the oasis was in the midst of a desert, the melting snows of the Tianshan provided sufficient water for the inhabitants to cultivate wheat, millet, and peas. It did not have extraordinary resources or a large population but owed its importance to its fortuitous geographical location.

The Silk Roads trade required measures other than paciﬁcation of a few oases or towns. Bandits who harassed and plundered caravans and tribes which exacted stiff tariffs from merchants had to be controlled. The Chinese ﬁrst sought to protect the caravans by stationing garrisons and erecting watch towers beyond the Great Wall. They also set up a postal station system designed to facilitate the conveyance of official mail, but private merchants could also use the facilities. Caravanserais, stopping places built especially for caravans, performed the same functions for merchants in West Asia.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

Even with these institutions, caravans faced innumerable hardships on the Silk Roads. “Roads” is perhaps a misnomer; indeed the word “trails” might be more accurate because the so-called “roads” were difficult to traverse and not easy to follow. Sandstorms, hallucinations in desert travel, bitter cold, avalanches, mountain sickness, and predatory animals were only a few of the dangers confronting travelers. Accidental spillage of much-needed drinking water could also be disastrous. Travelers’ reports of corpses of men and animals observed along these trails attest to the hardships of Silk Roads travel. Camels and cooperative economic arrangements facilitated such travel. Camels could carry more weight than other pack animals and required less water and less pasture than horses or mules did; they were ideally suited for desert travel. Yet camel raising and training required expertise.3 The gestation period for camels is long, and many of the beasts are sterile. The death rate in infancy is high, so that the rearing of camels is expensive and time-consuming. Similarly, the caravans themselves were expensive and, as noted above, risky. To spread the risks and avert bankruptcy for an individual merchant if his caravan failed to reach its destination, Islamic traders organized commenda, and the Mongols established ortogh.4 The commenda has been described as “an arrangement in which an investor or group of investors entrusts capital or merchandise to an agent-manager, who is to trade with it, and then return to the investors the principal and a previously agreed share of the proﬁts. As a reward for his labor, the agent receives the remaining share of the proﬁts.”5 On the other hand, if the caravan was attacked by bandits or fell prey to disaster, the risks were spread widely enough that no single investor would be wiped out. The ortogh was a similar arrangement. The economic value of the Silk Roads trade has probably been overrated, but its cultural signiﬁcance cannot be overemphasized. Silk, glass, tea, porcelain, rhubarb,6 and other products conveyed by caravan were luxury products and did not dominate the economies of the civilizations and political entities en route. Individual merchants, innkeepers, investors, camel grooms, and travelers beneﬁted, but the economic positions of societies as a whole were not affected. Cultural impact, on the other hand, was a different matter. The Silk Roads linked the major civilizations in Asia and acted as conduits for the transmission of ideas, technologies, and artistic motifs between them. It is no accident that Buddhism and Islam, not to mention Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, and Nestorian Christianity, spread across the oases and towns along the Silk Roads and then reached the dominant civilizations. Merchants and missionaries introduced these ideas on their travels from west to east. Persian astronomy and medicine reached China; Persians translated Chinese texts on agriculture; and Chinese prisoners introduced paper to the Islamic world. Similarly, such Chinese motifs as the dragon and the phoenix inﬂuenced Persian miniature paintings and tile-work, and Central Asian designs would be incorporated into Chinese textiles. Starting in the early sixteenth century, such rich cultural interactions eroded with the decline of the Silk Roads trade. The discovery of the sea route from Europe to Asia undermined the Silk Roads trade, as ocean-going vessels could carry bulkier items more cheaply than the still risky, long-distance caravan trade across Asia. In addition, political turbulence in Central Asia, the conversion of the Persians to the Shi’ite form of Islam (which created conﬂicts and thus interrupted trade with the mostly Sunni peoples of West Asia), and the rise of Ming imperial power—a less foreigner-friendly dynasty in China— impinged upon and eventually undermined Silk Roads trade. Central Asia, which had been the crossroads of civilizations for more than a millennium, became a backwater that stagnated for several centuries before new possibilities emerged.

3 4

See Richard Bulliett, The Camel and the Wheel (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975). On the ortogh, see Morris Rossabi, “The Muslims in the Early Yuan Dynasty” in John Langlois, ed., China under Mongol Rule (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), 282-83 and Elizabeth Endicott-West, “Merchant Associations in Yuan China: The Ortogh,” Asia Major, 3rd. ser., 2.2 (1989), pp. 127-154. Abraham Udovitch, “Commercial Techniques in Early Medieval Islamic Trade” in D. S. Richards, ed. Islam and the Trade of Asia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970), p. 47. For centuries, powdered rhubarb root was a much-valued medicine in that it was used for everything from digestive ailments to venereal disease. Rhubarb first became popular as a food plant in Europe during the early 1800s.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

Built in the Fifteenth Century, Jiayuguan in Gansu Province Is the Westernmost Section of the Great Wall

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh, 1998)

II. From Silk Roads to Oil Roads

In the late nineteenth century, Russia and Great Britain capitalized on Central Asia’s weakness to dominate the region. Russia converted the self-sufficient agriculture in the oases and towns to an exportoriented agriculture, emphasizing cotton. Great Britain challenged Russia in a so-called Great Game, preventing the Tsarist regime from approaching India, the crown jewel of the British Empire. In the twentieth century, the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China expanded into Inner Asia. The U.S.S.R. organized socialist republics in Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan, encouraging Russian migration into the region and, like the Tsarist government, fostering cotton cultivation, an economic policy that proved disastrous. Cotton required massive infusions of water, which the State farms and collectives obtained from the Aral Sea. By the end of the century, the Aral Sea had virtually dried up as a result of the extraordinary demand for water in cotton cultivation. In addition, the chemical fertilizer used in the cotton ﬁelds drained into the nearby bodies of water and into the aquifers, causing birth defects, illnesses, and even deaths among the unsuspecting population that drew drinking water from these sources. Chinese expansion into the so-called Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region also gave rise to ecological problems. Chinese peasants who moved into the Inner Mongolian steppes and farmed land more suitable for a pastoral economy contributed to increased desertiﬁcation. The growing Chinese population in Xinjiang placed enormous burdens on the limited water supply in a region that consisted mostly of deserts. Water in Northwest China and indeed in all of North China may prove to be one of the pressing problems faced by Chinese governments in the twenty-ﬁrst century. These problems notwithstanding, Inner Asia has witnessed a political and economic revival from the early 1990s on, particularly due to its abundance of natural resources. The ﬁve Central Asian republics have become independent countries, Mongolia has become independent of U.S.S.R. political leverage, and China has adopted a policy of greater investment in its Western regions, including Xinjiang. Equally important, signiﬁcant deposits of generally untapped mineral and natural deposits have been discovered. Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan (a new country adjacent to the Caspian Sea), and northern Xinjiang (the Karamai region, in particular) are awash in oil. Southern Siberia and Turkmenistan have substantial deposits of gas; Mongolia has gold, copper, ﬂuorspar, and molybdenum deposits. Because Inner Asia is landlocked and plagued with bitterly cold winters, transport of these resources to market will prove challenging. The U.S., Russia, and China, among other countries, have vested interests where oil and gas pipelines are constructed. The oil and gas roads will doubtless precipitate more controversies than the Silk Roads.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads Morris Rossabi

Early Contacts

Numerous different peoples, cultures, and societies have participated in the interactions along the Silk and Oil Roads. This stretch of Eurasia witnessed repeated migrations and intermingling of the diverse groups that inhabited the vast terrain. Conﬂicts over trade and land prompted some tribes and societies to ﬂee from their native lands and to settle or roam in new territories where they inﬂuenced or were, in turn, inﬂuenced by their new neighbors. On occasion, they overwhelmed the native inhabitants, compelling the defeated people to assimilate or to accept foreign control or to abandon their lands and to move farther west. However, such conﬂicts or forced migrations were not the rule. Trade and cultural exchanges most often characterized relations among the diverse peoples. Semitic, IndoEuropean, Turkic-Mongolian, and Sinitic language speakers frequently maintained peaceful relations. China, as the principal producer of silk and the starting point for commerce, was at the center of the Silk Roads trade. It often portrayed itself as economically self-sufficient and sought to limit contact with foreigners. However, its need for self-defense prompted it to develop a means of dealing with its primarily nomadic pastoral or oasis-dwelling neighbors. China’s neighbors, on the other hand, required trade for their very survival. If the Chinese denied them commerce, they would simply seize the Chinese goods they needed. In order to deﬂect raids, attacks, and incursions, the Chinese organized the tribute system of foreign relations.1 The tribute system facilitated Silk Roads trade because it laid the foundations for the peace essential for commerce. When China was ruled by powerful dynasties, the tribute system worked well, peace generally prevailed in Central Asia, and the Silk Roads trade ﬂourished. The Han (206 BCE-220 CE) and the Tang (618-907) exempliﬁed such dynasties. Good relations with many foreign groups and cultures and intimidation of the remaining belligerent ones set the stage for extensive trade and cultural contacts throughout Asia. Persian craftsmen, Central Asian dancers and other entertainers, and Arab merchants reached China, while Chinese Buddhist pilgrims traveled to Central Asia and India. When China was weak or decentralized and could not maintain the tribute system, such exchanges ended or at least diminished. Little is known of the pastoral nomadic or oasis-dwelling peoples because most had not developed written languages. The Xiongnu, whose history is known principally from Chinese accounts, was the ﬁrst of these confederations to challenge and eventually to develop a commercial relationship with China. Based in Mongolia, these pastoral nomads sought and received silk, grain, and other commodities from Han China. Japanese excavations of Xiongnu tombs in the 1930s and a recent discovery of a Xiongnu cemetery attest to the large number of Chinese products in their domains. Like pastoral nomads before and since, however, unity proved elusive for the Xiongnu. A tribe is the optimal unit for a pastoral economy, and confederations generally fragmented because they could not secure the loyalty of individuals and tribes. A proper and orderly succession to leadership also proved unattainable for the Xiongnu and later confederations, resulting in internal conﬂicts and, ﬁnally, collapse. The Sogdians, an Iranian-speaking people, were more important than the Xiongnu in the Silk Roads trade because, as the Chinese sources observed, the men of Sogdiana “have gone wherever proﬁt is to be 1

For a description of the tribute system, see Morris Rossabi, China among Equals—The Middle Kingdom and its Neighbors, 10th -14th Centuries (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 1-4.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

found.” They dominated the silk trade from the second to the seventh centuries from their bases in Samarkand and Bukhara. Sogdian merchants were found everywhere from Merv (in Persia) to Mongolia and because of them, Samarkand became renowned as a commercial emporium. Culture accompanied trade, the Sogdians helped ﬁrst to promote Buddhism throughout Inner Asia and later to spread Manichaeism to China and Mongolia. Simultaneously, they adapted the Aramaic script for their written language and transmitted artistic motifs west to east.2 The Chinese and Uyghur Languages Attempt to Coexist throughout Xinjiang

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Marleen Kassel, Xinjiang, 2001)

II. The Uyghurs and Islam

The Uyghur confederation (744-840), composed of a Turkic-speaking people based in Mongolia, beneﬁted enormously from the Sogdians, particularly after the Arab invasions of Central Asia prompted many of these quintessential merchants to move eastward. The Uyghurs’ commercial relationship with the Sogdians introduced them to Buddhism and then Manichaeism, which subsequently became the court religion. Starting as pastoral nomads, the Uyghurs, through trade with the Sogdians and Tang China, developed a mixed pastoral-agricultural economy. As they became more sedentary, they built a capital, the ﬁrst such city in the steppelands. The new city dwellers craved luxury items, creating a demand for Chinese silk and silver. After the Uyghurs helped the Tang quell a rebellion in 763, they demanded a substantial increase in trade with China. The pastoral nomads became disenchanted, as “the discrepancies between life in the cities and away from them grew wider. Two quite distinct and utterly different societies grew up within the same empire…[and] the empire had hardly been founded before the divisions set in and it did not have the strength to overcome them.”3 Such divisions between the pastoral nomads who espoused the traditional lifestyle and values and their increasingly sedentary brothers who recognized that they needed to adopt new institutions and ways to rule weakened both and contributed to the fall of the confederation. The Uyghurs were compelled to migrate to Xinjiang. Meanwhile, Islam was gaining adherents in West Asia, and as the religion spread to Central Asia, it facilitated Silk Roads trade. Arab and Persian merchants reached China as early as the seventh century and established virtually self-governing communities there by the eighth century. They continued to trade with West and Central Asia, performing useful services for the Tang court. Although the Confucian elite considered trade demeaning and depicted merchants as parasites who merely 2 3

See Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner, Monks and Merchants: Silk Road Treasures from Northwest China (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2001). Colin Mackerras, “The Karakhanids and Early Islam.” In Denis Sinor, ed. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1990), p. 341.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

exchanged, rather than produced, goods, they proﬁted from commerce by receiving both luxury goods and necessities while imposing stiff tariffs and taxes on trade.4 Moreover, the government no doubt received its share of the proﬁts and enjoyed the fruits of cultural exchange, including exposure to West and Central Asian music, dance, spices, and medicines and as well as the ability to obtain the works of Persian silversmiths and weavers. Thus the court tolerated the establishment of Muslim communities in oases along the Silk Roads and in the port cities of Southeast China as long as those communities did not proselytize or provoke hostilities. Chinese merchants, innkeepers, and craftsmen proﬁted from this foreign trade and relished the goods imported by the Muslims. They did not share the Confucian elite’s scorn for commerce. The xenophobia of late Tang, which included persecution of the “foreign” religion of Buddhism in 845 and turbulence in Central Asia, subverted the Silk Roads trade. Jealousies and disputes generated rifts between the Muslim and the Chinese merchants, and animosity toward the Muslims and other foreigners surfaced during a ninth-century rebellion against the Tang. According to the reports of Abu Zayd (878-916), the Chinese rebel Huang Chao massacred over 100,000 Muslims, Nestorians, and Jews in Canton in 878.5 The ﬁgure that Abu Zayd cites is an exaggeration, but the Muslims were attacked, probably because of economic grievances rather than religious discrimination. The later Tang hostility toward foreigners, which coincided with the decline of the dynasty, resulted in the cessation of Silk Roads trade. This Food Vendor in Xi’an (Shaanxi province, north central China) Is a Hui, a Chinese-speaking Muslim

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Lier Chen, 2004)

III. The Mongol and Post-Mongol Era

The Mongols revived the Silk Roads trade and ushered in a period of global history. Emerging from the steppelands in the early thirteenth century under their leader Temujin (granted the title “Chinggis Khan” in 1206), they carved out the largest contiguous land empire in world history, stretching from 4 5

See Edward Schafer, The Golden Peaches of Samarkand (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp. 23-28. See Howard S. Levy (tr.), Biography of Huang Ch’ao (Chinese dynastic histories translations, no. 5, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1955).

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Korea to Russia in the north and from Southeast China to Syria in the south. As I have written elsewhere, “Though their empire lasted less than a century, it inextricably linked Europe to Asia…[leading to] an era of frequent and extended contacts between East and West.”6 The Pax Mongolica they imposed encouraged and facilitated travel in the sizable domain in Asia that was under Mongol rule, permitting West Asian and even European merchants, craftsmen, missionaries, and envoys to journey as far away as China. Asian goods reached Europe along the Silk Roads, and the ensuing European demand for such products eventually stimulated the search for a sea route to Asia. The Venetian Marco Polo was the most renowned of the travelers, but the friar William of Rubruck, the Arab jurist Ibn Battuta, the French silversmith Guillaume Boucher, and the Armenian King He’tum also reached East Asia. Like Marco, they wrote valuable accounts of their travels and the regions through which they voyaged. Despite errors of omission (no mention of bound feet, chopsticks, Chinese writing, etc.) and commission (overstating his own position in Khubilai Khan’s court), Marco doubtless reached and spent about seventeen years in China. Meanwhile a Nestorian monk named Rabban Sauma traveled from Beijing to Paris, and Zhou Daguan went as an envoy to Cambodia, and both wrote descriptions of the religions, the social life, and the economies of the countries through which they voyaged. The Mongol era witnessed extraordinary cultural exchanges. Central Asian weavers who moved to China brought new designs and techniques into textile production. Persians translated a Chinese agricultural manual, and Khubilai Khan, the founder of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), invited Persian astronomers and physicians to introduce their innovations into Chinese astronomy and medicine. Chinese motifs, such as the dragon and the phoenix, entered into the artistic vocabulary of Persian ceramicists and miniature painters. The perennial lack of unity among pastoral nomads as well as an irregular order of succession, which often resulted in bloody conﬂicts, destroyed the Mongol empire. By 1260, the Mongol domains were fragmented into the Golden Horde of Russia, the Ilkhanate in West Asia, the Chaghadai Khanate in Central Asia, and the Yuan dynasty in China, which were often at war with each other. Moreover, succession struggles repeatedly bedeviled each of these divisions. Such internal rifts, as well as economic problems, contributed to decay and ultimately either to loss of power or to withdrawal and return to Mongolia. The collapse of the Mongol empire by the mid-ﬁfteenth century undermined the Silk Roads trade. The indigenous Ming dynasty of China imposed restrictions on trade and tribute; the Safavids, who acceded to power in Persia in the early sixteenth century, converted to Shi’ism, which generated conﬂicts with the mostly Sunni believers of West Asia; and Central Asia devolved into almost constant struggles between various Khans and Emirs. The discovery of the cheaper and more efficient sea route from Europe to Asia also dealt a damaging blow to the Silk Roads trade. The sea routes, in turn, led to the stagnation and gradual impoverishment of the great Central Asian oases and towns such as Samarkand and Bukhara. The Silk Roads regions, which had for centuries been crossroads of trade and cultural exchange, deteriorated into small and weak oases or khanates. IV. Russia and China Move In

The expansionist Tsarist and Qing (1644-1911) courts capitalized on the ensuing weakness of the Silk Roads domains. By 1760, Qing China ruled Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet; by 1872, Russia had gained control over western Central Asia. Both the mostly Buddhist peoples of Mongolia and Tibet and the mostly Muslim peoples of Central Asia and Xinjiang were exploited and became increasingly impoverished. The Qing encouraged Buddhism, but both Russia and China discriminated against

Morris Rossabi, Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), p.1.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Islam, resulting in major nineteenth-century rebellions. In addition, Russia had to deal with the Great Game, a struggle for domination over Central and South Asia between the Tsarist court and Great Britain, as the English government tried to protect India, its “crown jewel.” The ensuing turbulence in Central Asia and Xinjiang slowed economic and cultural development, and the oases and regions along the Silk Roads were politically and economically stagnant. The fall of the Qing in 1911 and the collapse of the Tsars in 1917 offered opportunities for independence, but disunity among the various peoples of Central Asia eventually curtailed that option. Chinese and non-Chinese warlords ruled Xinjiang from 1911 to 1949 because neither the Uyghur population in the oases, nor the Kazakh pastoralists in the surrounding mountains and valleys, could cooperate to form one uniﬁed opposition. Uyghurs identiﬁed with a particular oasis rather than as part of a Uyghur people. They perceived themselves to be Kashgaris or Turfanis, but not Uyghurs. Moreover, they could not forge an alliance with the Hui, their co-religionists, because the latter, though Muslims, were ethnically Chinese and identiﬁed with China. Only after more than thirty years did the Uyghurs join together to form a so-called Eastern Turkic Republic, but by then it was too late. The Communists had taken power in China and, by 1950, had occupied Xinjiang. Nor could the peoples of Central Asia unite. The Communists gradually but methodically quelled the major Islamic rebel group, the Basmachi movement. By the mid-1920s, Central Asia was divided into ﬁve distinct republics: the Uzbek, the Turkmen, the Kazakh, the Kirghiz, and the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republics. None of the local governments were autonomous. The central government was economically dominant, encouraged Russian migration into the area, and campaigned against Islam and the local languages. Its repressive policies led to the deaths of thousands, if not millions, and devastated the Central Asian environment. On the other hand, that same central government introduced a rudimentary health, educational, and welfare system that improved the lives of most of its citizens. Like the Soviets, the Chinese Communists emphasized autonomy and protection of the speciﬁc cultural characteristics for the so-called national minorities, establishing autonomous regions, particularly in Tibet, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and parts of Southwest China.7 However, their policies over the past ﬁfty years have wavered from support to attacks on Islam and Buddhism and on the local languages, educational systems, and cultures of the peoples along the Silk Roads. Policies have also encouraged Chinese (the Han majority) to move into the minorities’ areas; Inner Mongolia is now predominantly Han, Xinjiang is half Han, and Tibet has a growing Han presence. There have been signiﬁcant disturbances in these regions, in the form of bombings, pitched battles, and actual rebellions. In the mid1990s, the Communists responded with a policy emphasizing greater investment and economic development in the West (i.e. Xinjiang and Tibet, the two most restive regions). It is too early to tell whether the new policy will succeed in quelling disturbances. These areas are of strategic importance because they border on India, the new countries in Islamic Central Asia, and Russia. They appear also to have signiﬁcant mineral and natural resources.8 The collapse of the U.S.S.R. in the early 1990s led to the establishment of independent countries in Central Asia. Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan emerged from the old Soviet Union and achieved political independence. Each has experienced signiﬁcant political turbulence, but several have major reserves of oil and natural gas, offering them great opportunities in the future. However, they are landlocked and will require cooperation from China, Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, or Turkey to market their resources. The next decade or two will witness intensive negotiations and perhaps conﬂict to determine the routes of the pipelines that will transport these resources to market. It will also be useful to see whether these Central Asians, as well as China’s minority peoples, can preserve their identities and cultures in this era of globalization.

China has five autonomous regions where ethnic minorities are a large part of the population. In general, “autonomy” refers to policies that preserve minority languages and customs. See the introduction to Morris Rossabi, Governing China’s Multiethnic Frontiers (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004).

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads George Saliba

Whether by land, along the famous ancient silk route, or by sea, the age-old route since antiquity through the Persian Gulf (once called the China Sea), China seems to have been in continuous contact with the other two ancient and contemporary civilizations of the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia. On the whole, those contacts were conditioned by trading exchanges, and thus rarely developed into more systematic appropriations of scientiﬁc or technological ideas from one culture to the other. China’s image in what is now called the Middle East was that of an affluent, exotic, sophisticated, and yet a very far land. In early seventh-century Arabia, for example, one could indeed speak of “seeking knowledge even if it takes one as far away as China,” as the prophet of Islam was supposed to have said in the ﬁrst quarter of that century. Two centuries later, we could still hear of someone saying that a speciﬁc book is so valuable “that it is worth a trip to China to get it.” These statements, of course, stress the remoteness of a distant land. In Islam’s holy book, the Qur’an, the mythical lands of Gog and Magog are supposed to be located in China, at the farthest edge of the East. And in the same colorful and legendary references, even one of the Israeli tribes that was supposed to have converted to Islam and believed in the mission of the prophet of Islam was also said to reside on the farthest eastern edge of China. All of these impressions constitute the quasi-legendary reality of old Chinese contacts with the civilizations of the Middle East. The situation changed with the advent of Islam in the seventh century and its rapid spread in the seventh and the eighth. China came into direct contact with an empire that by then had quickly stretched from its western border in modern-day Central Asia, all the way to the Iberian Peninsula, the underbelly of Europe. In that new setting, more realistic visions of each other’s cultures began to emerge, despite the fact that the sources in both cultures still spoke of the immense distances between the two. And yet, despite the impression of distance, the presence of each culture in the mind of the other became more immediate. Invented in China, Paper Became Widely Used in Central Asia, And from There Spread to the West This Book Has Both Chinese and Turkic Writing

(Source: TB Stein: 4.0339)

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

We are told, for example, that the second Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur (754-775) had speciﬁc reasons for laying down the foundations of his new city Baghdad, in modern-day Iraq, where he did. He believed he would gain a tremendous advantage on account of its proximity to the Tigris River. Since the Tigris emptied into the modern Persian Gulf, it would in turn give him ready access to trade with China. The other reason was to collect taxes from the western Muslim lands through the equally nearby Euphrates River. His foresight led to that same city, Baghdad, eventually becoming the bustling center of the Islamic Empire for some seven centuries. Two centuries after al-Mansur, a biographer and intellectual historian named al-Nadim preserved for us a report of a Chinese student in Baghdad, toward the beginning of the tenth century. The student requested the famous Muslim physician Abu Bakr al-Razi (Latin: Rhazes) to dictate to him the works of the Greek physician Galen1 as fast as he could and used a remarkable system of shorthand to take a copy of those works back to China with him. The student took down al-Razi’s words using that method. The story may be completely apocryphal, yet it conﬁrms the frame of mind of a Baghdadi intellectual who was apparently full of admiration for the ability of the Chinese student to write down every word in his shorthand system. Furthermore, the story conﬁrms the sense of immediate presence of the Chinese in the mind of the early Muslim intellectuals. This impression could have also been strengthened by the marvelous techniques that the Muslims brought back from China along with their trade objects. Whether in the art of navigation, or the instruments of the same, such as the magnetic compass ﬁrst invented in China, or by the acquisition of paper—a Chinese invention admittedly appropriated by the Muslims towards the middle of the eighth century—or the manufacture of the ﬁne silk and art objects in imitation and adaptation of the Chinese examples, or the development of block printing in almost complete imitation of the Chinese practice, or the use of gunpowder, to name only a few, one cannot but admit the fascination with things Chinese that must have been circulating in early Islamic times. Such impressions of the superior Chinese craftsmanship must have given rise to the widely disseminated Arabic adage that “God has granted his beneﬁcence to three human organs: the brains of the Greeks, the hands of the Chinese, and the tongues of the Arabs.” The acquisition of paper itself was of such momentous importance and must have spread so quickly in Islamic lands, that it generated a true revolution of knowledge during the early ninth century. The same person who reported the story of the Chinese student was also called “al-warraq—the paper maker.” By reading Arabic sources that speak of Chinese things, one gets the impression that Muslim authors were simply enamored with the fantastic technological skills and inventions that were imported from China to the lands of Islam. But the story was slightly different when it came to the matter of theoretical sciences. In contrast to the quick dissemination of Chinese technological inventions in the Muslim world, and the eventual passing along of those inventions to Europe through Muslim contacts, there seems to have been a virtual “wall” when it came to the theoretical sciences—not too different from the physical Great Wall of China. Even if we believe the story of the Chinese student managing to copy down the whole of the Galenic medical works circulating in tenth-century Baghdad, all in a period of a month as the story goes, we are still pretty certain that Galenic medicine did not make much of an impact on the independent Chinese medicinal system. Similarly, the far more sophisticated astronomical system of the ancient and medieval Chinese, which used our very modern equatorial system instead of the ecliptic system of the Greeks and the Muslims,2 could not pass westward through that wall until perhaps the most recent times, well after the Jesuits landed in China in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Even a deliberate attempt to transfer to 1

Galen (129-?210 CE) was a physician and philosopher. His medical writings were highly influential in the West until the advent of modern medicine in the nineteenth century. Our solar system—the sun and the planets orbiting around it—is almost flat. This flat plane is called the ecliptic. The celestial equator is the earth’s equator projected onto the sky. The Chinese divided the sky up into twenty-eight segments by drawing imaginary longitudinal lines from pole to pole through the equator. They used these divisions to mark the location and movement of stars and planets.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

China some of the latest state-of-the-art astronomical instruments of thirteenth century Muslim lands was an apparent failure. Historical sources tell us of a sample of about a dozen instruments that were carried from the site of a thirteenth-century Ilkhanid observatory in the city of Maragha in northwest Iran, by the Persian astronomer Jamal al-Din (whose name is preserved in the Chinese sources as Zha-ma-lu-ding) from around 1267. Still, “the direct effect [of those instruments] upon Chinese astronomical practice seems to have been nil,” as was correctly surmised by Joseph Needham in his most celebrated work, Science and Civilization in China.3 The reason for the celebrated success of the transmission of Chinese technological innovations westwards and the apparent total failure of transmitting fundamental scientiﬁc ideas to China from the western domain, may have had something to do with the manner in which Chinese science itself developed, and to a much greater part due to the very antiquity of that science. When China came in contact with Islamic civilization during the seventh and eighth centuries, Islamic civilization was becoming a melting pot of all sorts of other scientiﬁc traditions. In contrast, Chinese scientists, whether in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, or chemistry (then called alchemy), were already set in their ways and had formed a coherent explanation of the universe around them. Unlike Islamic civilization that had no worldview of its own to defend against incoming ideas, Chinese civilization was by then of a great antiquity. It had already achieved the required harmony between its social and scientiﬁc needs. At that stage, foreign ideas would naturally have had little effect to speak of. Silk Fabric Begins with Silkworms The Chinese Guarded the Secret of Raising Silkworms and Silk Manufacture for Many Centuries

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Denis Titchenell)

That does not mean that a technique here or a solution of a speciﬁc problem there could not be passed on from one culture to the other. All it means is that individual technological ideas that did not incorporate a change in one’s worldview could be adopted without greatly affecting the normal practice of science or its fundamental scientiﬁc beliefs and concepts. The Chinese could actually adopt, as they did, the screw, or the clock, or the crankshaft without changing their minds about the nature of the heavenly bodies.

Joseph Needham. Science and Civilization in China, Vol. 3, “Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

None of the travelers who went to China from the Muslim lands during the middle ages ever seem to have brought back impressions of scientiﬁc ideas or actual scientiﬁc texts, but they always brought back scores of medicinal substances and drugs, metallic and porcelain objects, descriptions of items of clothing as well as the cloths themselves, and all sorts of techniques that could be emulated—and, of course, many stories of the exotic lands they had visited. The twelfth century geographer and traveler al-Idrisi lists some twenty-ﬁve trade items that were brought by sea from China to Aden in southern Arabia, starting with iron and ending with lead, and including such things in between as spices, camphor, coconuts, and items of ﬁne clothing and velvet. When al-Idrisi spoke of the Chinese rhubarb, which was regularly imported by Muslim merchants, he spoke of its physical and medicinal qualities. The Chinese had obviously passed on information about its medicinal values.4 During the fourteenth century, the famous Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta brought word of the Chinese innovation of paper money that had been up till then unheard of anywhere else. He also brought back stories of the huge Chinese chicken that was much larger in size than the geese with which he was familiar. What seems to have impressed him most was the fantastic ability of the Chinese to paint the likeness of a person, and to do so with such incredible ﬁdelity that such paintings were used to locate and arrest foreign visitors who committed crimes—something probably similar to our modern mug shots, but apparently with much better accuracy. Their kings, just as with Indian kings, says al-I drisi, were highly interested in painting and took care to teach this art to their children. They even went as far, he says, as choosing the best painter among their children to succeed them. In other scientiﬁc areas such as alchemy, one can say that Chinese alchemy did not owe much to Islamic alchemy, nor did the mostly Hellenistic-based Islamic alchemy owe much to Chinese alchemy. Islamic alchemy was, on the whole, attempting to transmute the base metals to produce gold, while Chinese alchemy was seeking drugs or other methods that would lead to longevity or even ensure immortality. Still, one has to wonder about the possible transmission of ideas when such alchemical concepts began to appear in both cultures at almost the same time, or slightly after Muslim ships ﬁrst landed in China in the early eighth century. One would think that cultures with such deeply diverging orientations regarding the purpose of alchemy would have little to borrow from one another. But in terms of techniques and individual concepts and processes it is quite plausible that the early Muslims who heard of the Chinese enterprise—the search for longevity or immortality—would add this project to their program as long as it did not require a major shift in their system of thought. We have already noted that early Islamic culture, unlike that of China, did not have a well-formulated system of philosophical thought when it came in contact with the Chinese culture. Thus it could freely borrow ideas and techniques from China, such as the elixir, rather than the other way around. One could easily trace scientiﬁc developments in both cultural spheres and at times see similarities that invite speculation as to who was borrowing from whom. One can never be certain of the direction of such inﬂuences if there were any. One thing seems certain, however, and that is that technological inventions that were produced in China during the ﬁrst thirteen centuries of the Christian era—such as the discovery of earth magnetism and the use of the compass for navigation, the invention of paper, printing, gunpowder, wheelbarrow and the like—all seemed to have swept through the rest of the world thanks to the mediation of the vast Muslim empire on the western border of China. Precious little hard core scientiﬁc knowledge followed.

For centuries powdered rhubarb root was a much-valued medicine. It was used for everything from digestive ailments to venereal disease. It first became popular as a food plant in Europe during the early 1800s.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

4. Religions Along The Silk Roads Chun-Fang Yü

The Silk Roads were a complex international “highway” connecting three centers of civilization in the ﬁrst millennium: China, India, and the Mediterranean. Used not only by caravan traders, diplomats, soldiers, and adventurers, but also by missionaries of several religions, it started from the Chinese capital of Chang’an (modern Xi’an) in the east and ended at the Roman Empire in the west, passing along the way through western China, Central Asia and Afghanistan, Iran, and the Middle East. Until Islam became the dominant faith in Central Asia in the tenth century, Buddhism—along with Zoroastrianism, Manicheanism, and Nestorian Christianity—was practiced in the oasis kingdoms along its length. Of these religions, it is Buddhism that became domesticated in China and subsequently has existed as one of the three main religions (the other being Confucianism and Taoism) of China to the present day. Although the once-ﬂourishing Buddhist presence in Central Asia is now attested to by only a few remaining cave temples and excavated sites of ruins, we are fortunate to have a living museum represented by some 500 caves at the site called Mogao gu or Peerless Caves, located in Dunhuang, which had developed into an important trading center in western China by the late fourth century. Travelers departing for and arriving from Central Asia, which the Chinese called “Western Regions,” all stopped here to rest, stock up or replenish their supplies, and either pray for a safe journey or give thanks for having survived it. Traveling monks dug the ﬁrst caves in the late fourth century; the last were completed in the mid-fourteenth century under the Yuan dynasty of the Mongols (1279-1368). In the course of a thousand years, more than one thousand caves were dug into the cliffs, and perhaps half of them were decorated. Used as places for meditation, ritual worship, and living quarters for monks, the caves varied in size and were decorated with wall paintings depicting scenes from the past and present lives of the Buddha, Buddhist paradises, and parables from famous Buddhist scriptures. Clay statues of guardian deities, heavenly musicians and apsarasas or ﬂying celestial nymphs, and illustrious disciples and bodhisattvas attended those of the Buddhas. Long before the site was abandoned in the ﬁfteenth century, some ﬁfty thousand documents and artifacts were stored in one of the caves, which were then sealed around the year 1000, probably out of fear of an invasion. In 1900, this cave (Cave 17), which came to be known as the Library Cave, was discovered. News about the hidden treasures brought the British explorer Sir Aurel Stein to the Mogao Caves in 1907. He succeeded in buying seven thousand complete manuscripts and six thousand fragments as well as several cases of paintings, embroideries, and other artifacts, for the price of 130 British pounds. He was soon followed by French, German, Russian, Japanese, and American explorers, who made the same trip and carried away as many documents and silk paintings as they could. In the 1920s, the Chinese government ﬁnally intervened, putting a stop to it. Among the treasures of the Library Cave, there are thousands of copies of Buddhist sutras as well as contracts, medical recipes, poems, letters, prayer sheets, ritual diagrams, and official documents. There are also silk banners, paintings on paper and hemp, wood-block printed sutras, the copy of the Diamond Sutra dated 868—being the oldest surviving printed book in the world—and documents written in Tibetan, Uyghur, and Khotanese.1 Scattered in several world museums, these documents have been assiduously studied by scholars for close to a hundred years. Together with the art in situ at Dunhuang, they serve as indispensable resources for our understanding of the religions of the Silk

Susan Whitfield, Life Along the Silk Road. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.), pp. 5-6, 41-49.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Roads. They supplement and complement what we can learn from traditional historical records which, being written by literati-officials, are generally concentrated on secular matters. The Pagoda Is a Chinese Version of the Indian Stupa, a Shrine Housing Relics Associated with the Buddha Or Other Sacred Figures

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Lier Chen, Chengdu, Sichuan, 2004)

Early Buddhist missionaries and translators were Indian as well as Central Asian. For instance, An Shigao, the ﬁrst translator of the Pure Land Sutra,2 was a Parthian, a state which controlled Iran, most of the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia. Zhi Qian’s ancestors were from Yuezhi (Scythia), and Kang Senghui was a Sodgian.3 Dharmaraksha, who was born in Dunhuang in 230 and was the ﬁrst translator of the Lotus Sutra, also had Scythian ancestry. The case of Kumarajiva, one of the most celebrated translators, is another example. Born in Kucha, Kumarajiva’s father was a Brahman and his mother a Kuchean princess. The mother became a Buddhist nun and the son followed her into the order. The two traveled to Kashmir to study texts of early Buddhism for three years. They then went to Kashgar and studied there for another year. While there, Kumarajiva was introduced to the literature of Mahayana Buddhism, which he compared to gold in contrast to the “stones” of early Buddhism. His fame reached China, and the ruler of the Former Qin dynasty 4 invited him to the capital in 379. However, due to a general who was hostile to Buddhism, Kumarajiva was held up in Liangzhou to the east of Dunhuang for seventeen years. Finally, an army had to be sent to defeat this general in order to bring him to Chang’an in 401. From 402 until his death in 413, Kumarajiva translated many of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism, with the help of some one thousand assistants.5 The traffic of Buddhist faithful was by no means one way. As early as 260, an eighty-year-old Chinese Buddhist monk by the name of Zhu Shixing went to Central Asia in search of “more complete” texts of the Perfection of Wisdom Sutra. He found it in Khotan and gave it to his disciple to take back to 2

3 4 5

Pure Land is one of the most widely practiced forms of Buddhism in East Asia. Through faith in, and devotion to Amitabha (the Buddha of Infinite Light), it holds out the promise of rebirth in the Pure Land, also called the Western Paradise. Kenneth Ch’en. Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), p. 16. Former Qin is one of the short-lived states that ruled north China during the period of disunion between the third and sixth centuries CE. Kenneth Ch’en. Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 81-83.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

China, he himself being too weak to make the trip. For the same reason—that of ﬁnding more accurate texts, this time those of the Yogacara school6—the famous pilgrim Xuanzang journeyed through the desert sands between 629 and 645. Several hundred Chinese pilgrims made the same pilgrimage to India both in search of scriptures and in order to study Buddhism under Indian teachers. In time, the ﬁgure of the pilgrim became a holy icon. Xuanzang’s record of his travels, written at the bequest of the emperor Taizong (r. 626-649), was eventually ﬁctionalized by the popular sixteenth-century novel Journey to the West. The monk and his travel companions, the most notorious being the trickster Monkey, have since become household names through storytelling, Peking opera, and more recently, movies and television programs. One should not be surprised by the crucial role Central Asia played in the transmission of Buddhism to China. By the beginning of the second century of the Common Era, both Early Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism had taken roots in the city-states, which amounted to some twenty-four along the Silk Road.7 This was the result of the active promotion of Buddhism by two Indian rulers, Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty (c. 274-236 BCE) and Emperor Kanishka I of the Kushana dynasty (c. 78-114 CE). Two city-states were particularly famous for being centers of Buddhism: Kucha on the northern branch of the Silk Road and Khotan on the southern branch. While the former followed Early Buddhism, the latter practiced both Early Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism and later, completely Mahayana. Buddhist missionaries used Gandhara and Kashmir as bases to spread their religion to Parthia, Sogdia, Khotan, and Kucha in Central Asia.8 Why did the missionaries and pilgrims risk their lives for the sake of the Buddha Dharma, the Buddhist teaching? What messages did they ﬁnd in Buddhism that were so attractive and powerful? Founded by the Buddha, the Enlightened One, who lived during the sixth and ﬁfth centuries BCE, Buddhism shared with Brahmanism, the dominant religion of India, basic beliefs about the world and the human condition. Human beings constitute one of six realms of existence, the other ﬁve being gods, asuras,9 animals, hungry ghosts,10 and hellish beings. One is bound to be reborn in any one of these realms after death, depending on the moral quality of the life lived or one’s karma. The perpetual rebirth, or samsara was regarded as painful. But unlike Brahmanism, early Buddhism did not rely on religious rituals or gods to gain release from samsara. Instead, it was by following the Dharma or the Truth, which the Buddha himself experienced, that one would gain the insight leading to nirvana or the cessation of rebirth. Soon after the Buddha’s enlightenment at the age of thirty-ﬁve, he preached the ﬁrst sermon of the Four Noble Truths. The audience for this ﬁrst sermon was a group of ﬁve ascetics. These men had been his disciples in the pursuit of enlightenment through self-mortiﬁcation, a path the Buddha came to reject for being as extreme as the reckless pursuit of pleasure. The Four Noble Truths state succinctly that human existence is painful, that the pain is caused by desire, that nirvana is the end of pain, and that the way to nirvana is the Eightfold Noble Path. This path includes training in morality and meditation and results in wisdom. With the conversion of the ﬁve ascetics, who had left the Buddha when he put aside the practice of self-mortiﬁcation, the Buddhist Sangha came into being. Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha are the Three Treasures that all Buddhists of later generations living in different parts of the world honor. By taking refuge in the Three Treasures, one becomes a Buddhist believer. When Buddha died at the age of eighty, he did not name any successor, but told his followers to be guided by the Dharma and be “lamps to yourselves.” Since each monastery was an independent entity, and not under any overarching hierarchical structure, it was inevitable that with time, divergences in both doctrinal understandings and observances of monastic rules would occur. The ﬁrst split of the A Buddhist school known in China as “Consciousness Only.” It offered a critique of the way previous schools understood the relation between the human mind and the world. Sally Hovey Wriggins, Xuanzang: A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road. (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996.), p. 25. 8 Kenneth Ch’en. Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 18. 9 Asuras were powerful supernatural beings that originated in Hindu mythology. Some were good and some were evil. They are sometimes com pared to Titans in Greek mythology. 10 In Indian religion (Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism), hungry ghosts exist between animals and beings in hell. Forever hungry and thirsty, they can only be satisfied by monks who feed them during a ritual called “feeding the hungry ghosts or burning mouths.” 6

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

community happened one hundred years after the Buddha’s nirvana. Eventually, there were eighteen different schools. Of these, only the Theravada (Teachings of the Elders), which was based in Sri Lanka, has survived to the present. When a new movement identifying itself as the Mahayana (Great Vehicle) emerged in c. 100 BCE-100 CE its adherents referred to Buddhism prior to it as the Hinayana (Small Vehicle). Although Hinayana originally included many different schools, it is now synonymous with Theravada. Instead of using the name Hinayana, which connotes sectarian antagonism, scholars nowadays prefer to use Theravada Buddhism, Nikaya Buddhism, Early Buddhism, or even Foundational Buddhism. There are a number of signiﬁcant differences between Early Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. While the Mahayanists also honor the Three Treasures and take refuge in them, their interpretation of the three are, however, very different. For the Theravadins, there is only one buddha in any one world cycle. So for our present world cycle, the historical Buddha is the only one. But for the Mahayanists, since our world is only one of many world systems, there are many buddhas in their buddha realms or Pure Lands preaching the Dharma at the same time. The Pure Land of Amitabha is the most famous one. According to the Pure Land sutras which were translated into Chinese in the third century, by sincerely calling the name of Amitabha or visualizing him and his Pure Land, one can be born there after death and have a better chance of achieving enlightenment there. The Mahayanists made new contributions to the Buddhist teaching or Dharma as well. They carried the idea of no-self to its logical conclusion by declaring that not only a person is devoid of a self or essence, but all phenomena are equally devoid of self-nature. This is the teaching of sunyata (void, emptiness), which forms the central message of the Perfection of Wisdom scriptures, the earliest group of Mahayana sutras to appear. Finally, the sangha was understood differently as well. The Buddhist sangha consists of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen. However, when one takes refuge in the sangha, one is not taking refuge in the actual sangha, but in the ideal sangha. For the Early Buddhists, the ideal sangha is made up by the arhats or saints. These are monks who achieved enlightenment by following the Eightfold Path and realizing the Four Noble Truths. When he dies, he enters nirvana and is never reborn again. He is thus forever separated from the world of samsara and totally indifferent toward the suffering beings. By contrast, the Mahayanists take refuge in an ideal sangha made up by the bodhisattvas or enlightened beings. Although the Early Buddhists already used the term bodhisattva, they nevertheless used it only to refer to the Buddha in his previous lives. The Buddha was called the bodhisattva in his many past lives when he practiced the many virtues that led to his last birth as the Buddha. In this case, bodhisattva means “Buddha-to-be” and has a very speciﬁc and limited connotation. The Tufts of Hair on the Head of a Buddha Image, Called Ushnishas in Sanskrit, Are Marks Of Perfection.

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Lier Chen, Chengdu, Sichuan, 2004)

For the Mahayanists, on the other hand, the term bodhisattva does not have such a narrow reference. A bodhisattva is not conﬁned to any gender, class, or even species. Any being (thus not just human beings) can be a bodhisattva. The most crucial step is to give rise to the mind of enlightenment PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

(bodhicitta) and make vows to achieve enlightenment for all sentient beings. This is followed by the practice of the six perfections—giving, morality, patience, vigor, meditation and wisdom—which are carried out in many lifetimes traversing the ten stages of the bodhisattva path. A bodhisattva does not wish for his or her own nirvana, but the complete unparalleled enlightenment or buddhahood. There are many bodhisattvas just as there are many buddhas in Mahayana Buddhism. Some of them, those who reached the eighth stage, have distinct identiﬁes and are savior-like ﬁgures. For the Central Asian and Chinese Buddhists, the most important one is Avalokiteshvara or Guanyin. He is the all-compassionate and all-powerful savior. Most amazingly, in order to get all these beneﬁts, all one must do is simply to call his name with single-minded sincerity. One does not have to earn his favor by scriptural study, moral perfection, or meditative proﬁciency. It is no wonder that he won the hearts and minds of numberless believers. Many pilgrims, including Xuanzang, would call the name of Guanyin when their lives were endangered in their journeys. Miracles abound. With the cult of Amitabha Buddha and the cult of bodhisattvas such as Guanyin, Mahayana Buddhism can be called an “other power” religion. Unlike Early Buddhism that stressed “self power,” a Mahayana believer is not alone in his or her endeavors. Through the free gift of divine grace, salvation is no longer beyond the hope of ordinary men and women. Buddhism is the ﬁrst world religion. Like Christianity and Islam centuries later, its message is for everyone. In Early Buddhism, although there is a difference in status between the monastics and lay believers, the difference is not hard and fast. If one chooses to lead the life of a monk or nun, one devotes oneself to meditation and study. But if one is not ready to give up the life of a householder, then one can engage in merit-making activities such as feeding the monks, giving donations to temples, having a Buddha image made, or sponsoring sutra recitations. Such merit is believed to bring good fortune in this life and a better rebirth in the next. Through merit making and good karma, everyone can eventually be fortunate enough to become a monk and nun. Good intention and hard work unfailingly bear results. This is a positive and optimistic belief. It offers hope and encouragement to those who must rely on their own efforts to succeed in life. The Mahayana message of compassion is even more attractive. Central Asia and China experienced many wars and many people fought over the control of the Silk Roads. In China, after the fall of the Han dynasty in 220, there was unrest and turmoil until 589 when the country was united under the Sui dynasty. The Xiongnu, who had long threatened the Chinese from the north, entered Chang’an in 316. The Chinese ﬂed south and did not regain the north for three hundred years. It was during these centuries that Buddhism took root in China. There is good reason why Buddhism could make its conquest at a time of political and social disorder. When the world is in chaos and life is full of uncertainties, how can one live in equanimity? It is perhaps during times such as these that the Buddhist ideals of wisdom and compassion could be truly appreciated. From the record of Chinese translation of Buddhist sutras, we know that the earliest types of literature translated were the meditation texts of Early Buddhism, which were followed by the Mahayana scriptures known as the Perfection of Wisdom. When the Chinese retreated to the south, the study of the latter became the order of the day. What do these scriptures preach? The message, which is reiterated, is that everything is sunya or empty. The Diamond Sutra, which is the best-known scripture in this group, declares: This ﬂeeting world is like A star at dawn, a bubble in a stream, A ﬂash of lightning in a summer cloud, A ﬂickering lamp, a phantom, and a dream. Wisdom is the realization of the insubstantial nature of all things, including oneself. To view the world in this way will initially lead to detachment and equanimity. But the ﬁnal realization is not the rejec-

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

tion of the world but rather the acceptance of all: be it war or peace, misfortune or good luck, foe or friend. This is the wisdom of the Buddha and the bodhisattva. A Buddha and a bodhisattva are, of course, also beings of compassion. The Mahayana sutras offer a number of such compassionate saviors, among whom Amitabha Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva are most popular. The Longer Sukhavativyuha Sutra was one of the earliest Mahayana sutras translated into Chinese. It was translated twelve times, of which ﬁve recensions or versions are extant. In this sutra, Guanyin (Avalokiteshvara) is an attendant of Amitabha, the Buddha of the Western Paradise or Pure Land. The sutra declares: “When good men or women meet with a crisis and experience fear, if they take refuge in Avalokiteshvara, none will not receive deliverance.” The interest shown to this sutra was soon reﬂected in art. One of the earliest Amitabha triads dates to the 420s. Sculpted in stucco, it can be found in Binglin Temple (Cave 169), which is located in eastern Gansu province.11 In the Lotus Sutra, another “gospel” of universal salvation, which was translated by Kumarajiva in 406 and become the standard used throughout East Asia, the Buddha appears not as a historical ﬁgure but as a cosmic and eternal presence. He proclaims that he has not gone to nirvana, but is ever present and accessible to all of us. The Buddha is declared to be the Father, and sentient beings are his children. In China, the Rotund Laughing Buddha Is a Symbol of Prosperity and Spiritual Contentment

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Lier Chen, Chengdu, Sichuan, 2004)

A separate chapter devoted to Guanyin, which became so popular that it was circulated as an independent sutra known as “Guanyin Sutra,” is titled “Universal Gateway.” Here, Guanyin appears in thirty-three forms in order to save the faithful from eight kinds of perils, grants them worldly wishes such as children, and helps them achieve enlightenment. Among the documents found in Cave 17 in Dunhuang, there are more than 5,000 extant copies of this sutra held at the libraries in China, England, France, Russia, and Japan. Many contain dedicatory inscriptions explaining why the copy was made. For instance, among the copies made in the seventh century, they express the wishes for the safety and prosperity of the country and the royal family, the hope to recover from one’s illness, or the desire for the welfare of one’s family, and relatives.

Chün-fang Yü, Kuan-yin: The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), pp. 34-35.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

There are also texts called “sutra lectures,” which were delivered as “popular lectures” by monks as part of religious services for the people that are expositions in prose and poetry on Buddhist sutras. One of these is the “Sutra Lecture on the Lotus,” which has the worship of Guanyin as its central theme. Written probably in the Tang period (618-907), it declares, “the blessings from worshiping Guanyin are the most superior.” The Buddha is made to announce, “If a good man or woman can keep and recite the name of Guanshiyin Bodhisattva, worship and make offerings to him for one day, the person’s merit will be the same as making offerings to 62 billion bodhisattvas.”12 Buddhism was not without its rivals in Central Asia and even China. Aside from Islam, which eventually triumphed and became the dominant faith in Central Asia, the two competitors to Buddhism were Manichaeanism and Nestorian Christianity, the former founded by Mani (b. 216) and the latter by Nestorius (d. ca. 451). Mani, born in Babylonia, had an Iranian father and a Parthian mother. Based on two revelations that he received in 228 and 240 from an angel who was said to be his heavenly twin, he started to preach a new religion. He proclaimed the existence of two opposing eternal principles: light and darkness and the three stages of a cosmic battle. Light will win over darkness in the ﬁnal stage, and the present world is created to rescue heavenly light scattered as particles in the world. Human beings, recalling the divine origin of their light selves, can help in releasing them. Manichaeanism as a religion was propagated through pictures and scriptures in nearly all known ancient languages. It adopted different religious concepts including Platonic, Christian, Zoroastrian, Hindu, Buddhist, and Muslim. The community consisted of two groups of believers: the Elects who wore white garments and observed strict ascetic rules, and the Auditors who served the former. Augustine of Hippo was an auditor in North Africa in 373-382. The Uyghurs adopted Manichaeanism as state religion in the eighth century. Manichaeism was introduced into China where its existence was reported until as late as the sixteenth century. The theology of Manichaeism bore much similarity to that of Zoroastrianism, which was founded by the Iranian-speaking prophet Zarathustra (Greek: Zoroaster) who lived sometime in the second millennium BCE. It was the official religion of the Iranians before their conversion to Islam in the seventh century, and it exerted much inﬂuence on Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Like Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism was also strictly dualistic in its worldview: good versus evil. Ahura Mazda, who represents good, is god: uncreated, eternal, and omniscient. Angra Mainyu is the Evil Spirit and destructive. The world has a beginning and an end. The ﬁnal outcome of the battle between the forces of good and evil is not predetermined, but depends on choice. Here, each individual human being plays a vital part, not only to save him or herself, but also to save the world using reason and insight. Good is represented by light and ﬁre. Thus, the ﬁre ritual—the cosmic puriﬁcation rite—had a central importance. Nestorian Christians followed the teachings of Nestorius, the bishop of Constantinople and a Syrian theologian. He was condemned as a heretic at the Council of Ephesus in 431 for two reasons. He declared that Jesus had two natures: one divine and one human; and he believed that Mary was not the “Mother of God,” but rather “the bearer of God.” His followers were persecuted; they moved from Syria to Persia and then to India, China, and Tibet. In the cosmopolitan Chang’an, capital of Tang China, a stone inscription describing their beliefs—still extant today—attested the presence of the Nestorian Christians. Like Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity in Central Asia and China is now no more than a memory of a religion that once competed for converts with Buddhism. Nonetheless, some of the ideas of Nestorian Christians might have inﬂuenced Buddhism. For instance, scholars have noted the strong emphasis on light symbolism connected with Amitabha and Guanyin. Might there be some Iranian inﬂuence in the rise of Mahayana Buddhism? The Buddhist eschatology of the three ages of the Dharma and its expectation of Maitreya, the Future Buddha, at the end of world cycle also resonates with that of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism. The Silk Road thus played a crucial role in the cross-pollination of ideas, just as it did in the exchange of commodities.

Chün-fang Yü, Kuan-yin: The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), pp. 75-76.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

5. Art Along The Silk Roads Stefano Carboni

When one reﬂects about the Silk Roads and cross-cultural connections along its routes, the ﬁrst images that come to mind are those related to the interaction and exchange between peoples, religions, merchants, and traders. They are images of cultural exchange across borders or of commercial exchange along continuous geographical lines dotted with caravans. Where does art ﬁt in this vast landscape and how and when did artists inﬂuence each other to create works that, to different degrees, spoke a common artistic language? The answer can be simple and complex at the same time, ranging from direct contact between craftsmen of different artistic and cultural backgrounds to a combination of motives that include cultural, religious, political, and commercial links at once. In addition to occasional encounters between artists from different cultures rarely mentioned in original sources, historical reports are dotted with direct contacts caused by the forced relocation of artists from their original workplace to the workshops of the capital of a new regional ruler. A good example in the westernmost area of Asia is provided by the capture of Chinese silk weavers, goldsmiths, painters, and papermakers by the Arab armies after the battle of Talas in Central Asia in 751 CE and their resettlement in the newly founded Abbasid capital, Baghdad. In the easternmost area, the relocation of the celebrated nasij (“cloth of gold”) weavers in the second half of the 13th century, from Herat and Samarkand to Dadu (now Beijing), the new capital of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. While the main reasons for such relocations may have been mostly political, commercial, and technological, those craftsmen brought with them the artistic traditions, patterns, and motifs they were accustomed to and that had been transmitted to them for many generations in their ancestral area. This fact, combined with their exposure and (their perhaps reluctant) collaboration with their local counterparts gave birth to new styles that incorporated and, in the most successful cases, assimilated and reinterpreted the imported patterns and motifs. The combination resulted in splendid blends that demonstrated truly novel artistic approaches and perceptions. Textiles Were an Important Vehicle for the Diffusion of Artistic Motifs across Eurasia

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Marleen Kassel, Xinjiang, 2001)

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

High-end trade and commerce, however, were probably the single most inﬂuential causes for the diffusion of artistic motifs from one end of Asia to the other, and beyond. The name Silk Roads was, of course, not thought up by chance. It reﬂected the importance given to the most sought-after commodity traveling east to west from the time of the Han dynasty, if not earlier. High quality silks were traded, presented as gifts, worn as a status symbol and as a fashion statement, and hung inside tents and in front of windows in desert palaces to shelter rooms from the sunlight. These silks were elaborately woven in colorful patterns drawn from the visual repertoire known to artists through sketches, drawings, and preparatory designs. These ranged from purely ornamental designs to symbolic animals, ﬂowers, geometric compositions, and calligraphic inscriptions that were meaningful to both the makers and the recipients. The dragon and the phoenix, for instance, were imperial symbols of the Yuan dynasty and became prominent icons on all textiles associated directly with the imperial house. The wide distribution of silks carrying these motifs became possible during the uniﬁcation of the continent under the Mongols. However, these imperial animals lost their original signiﬁcance and were copied in Western Asia as purely decorative patterns. Thus, they lost their original powerful meaning—but effectively turned into an integral part of a common artistic language. Only the Silk Roads could have made that possible. Silk textiles of all types—woven, embroidered, or painted—also played a prominent role in the transmission of speciﬁc religious iconographies along the Silk routes. This was especially true regarding Buddhism, the most widespread faith in Central and Eastern Asia, with its important ramiﬁcations in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Sutra covers, banners, mandalas, and an entire range of portable textiles produced for Buddhist monasteries traveled back and forth, transmitting the rich visual repertoire of this religion and creating ideal links and analogous images between distant lands, such as eastern China and India. It is not coincidental that Tibetan monasteries have become over many centuries the largest repositories not only of Buddhist textiles but also of many other types of rich fabrics endowed or donated to the monks. Because of their portability, textiles played a truly unique, pivotal role in the transmission and diffusion of artistic styles across Asia. Although the great oasis cities around the Taklamakan desert, such as Turfan, Dunhuang, Khotan, and Kizil, at the very heart of the Silk Roads, preserve cycles of monumental Buddhist images, it must be emphasized, however, that textiles were more inﬂuential than the models provided by these splendid frescoes. In Western Asia, where Islam became the most prominent religion after the seventh century CE, socalled tiraz textiles with woven or embroidered inscriptions in the name of the Caliph (the religious and secular ruler in the Muslim world) were an important means of diffusion of the faith. Keeping in mind that calligraphy has always played the most important role in the arts of Islam, speciﬁc calligraphic styles were spread through the same medium across the empire. These textiles, together with Qur’an manuscripts copied on vellum and, later, on paper, thus contributed to the artistic unity that is so distinctive of Islamic art. Beyond the Mongol territories in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, at the western end of the Silk Roads, many types of textiles and their patterns were sought after and imitated. The last Ilkhanid (Mongols ruling the Greater Iranian region) sultan Abu Said, in an effort to conclude a peace treaty, presented his Mamluk (a Turkic dynasty settled in Egypt and Syria) counterpart 700 richly woven “clothes of gold” in the early 1320s. This was one of the most memorable gifts of precious textiles. We also know, however, that high-quality Ilkhanid works reached the Mamluk capitals of Cairo, Damascus, and Aleppo on a regular basis through trade and exchange of presents, to the extent that the arts of the Mamluks were strongly inﬂuenced by Ilkhanid, and ultimately Eastern Asian, models. At the end of the Silk Road leading west to Europe rather than Egypt, luxury textiles were highly regarded as a signature product of Asian weavers. They were used to bury royalty—for example, in 1365 the body of Rudolph IV of Austria was wrapped in a cloth woven with the name of the Ilkhanid

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Abu Said—and to line reliquaries in which church treasures were stored. Italian craftsmen from Lucca strove to learn the sophisticated weaving techniques and copied Mongol patterns and symbols, so much so that it is sometimes difficult to ascertain the origin of some textiles. Silk textiles were not the only artistic products that circulated along the Silk Roads. Gold jewelry, belt elements, and all kinds of small objects as well as silver cups, plates, and pitchers worked in ﬁligree, openwork, repoussé, and so on were made for affluent people and often changed hands, their patterns and techniques moving around with them. Today we can have only a glimpse of the importance of precious metals manufactured by gold- and silversmiths into expensive works of artistic signiﬁcance, since objects made of these metals were among the ﬁrst items to be melted whenever a need of hard currency arose. We must therefore imagine that many of the gold dinars and Chinese coins that survive today once may have been elaborate necklaces, belt buckles, or drinking cups decorated with patterns that became part of the common language of Asian artists. Whereas we can safely surmise that artistic transmission mostly followed the Silk Roads—that is, a movement east to west, thus suggesting that eastern Asian artists particularly inﬂuenced their western Asian colleagues—there are notable exceptions that make this artistic tale more fascinating and intricate. As mentioned before, for example, weavers from Central Asia and eastern Iran were relocated to the Mongol capital, Dadu, in the thirteenth century. In this case, they brought with them ancient western Asian, Iranian motifs, such as lions and griffins either facing each other or back-to-back and other powerful zoomorphic symbols of kingship, in an infrequent reversal of direction. As a result, silks woven in China incorporated these designs, which were combined with the dragon, the phoenix, the lotus, and the peony, equally powerful imperial motifs. One artistic medium, however, traveled exclusively west to east for many centuries. It was particularly rare and therefore sought after in eastern and southeastern Asia, as well as in Japan, where its manufacture was virtually unknown. Glassmaking was a specialty of Egyptian, eastern Mediterranean, and Iranian craftsmen. It became a particularly important but affordable commodity after the invention of glassblowing in the ﬁrst century CE. The great majority of glass was made into utilitarian vessels that contained the perfumes, oils, wines, spices, and so forth that were traded east along the Silk Roads. Some of the green, blue, or nearly colorless glass objects were plain. Others showed simple incised or deeply cut patterns. They were hardly regarded as works of art as they are today. Nevertheless, the rarity of the material and its almost magic “translucent man-made stone” quality made glass a prized possession that was included in burial sites or kept as a temple treasure. A good example is the nondescript greenish small ﬂask from the early Islamic period (eighth to ninth century) that is still stored in a decorated gold box in a Buddhist temple in Korea. Probably only a small number of glass objects shipped to eastern Asia were traded as luxury items rather than as containers for other goods—transported along caravan routes and aboard transoceanic ships sailing from the Persian Gulf to southern China, serving both the Muslim communities around Quanzhou and the Chinese traders. But it is well known that mold-blown Roman glass of high quality, expensive facet-cut cups of Sasanian origin, elaborately incised, relief-cut, and luster-painted medieval Islamic glass, and superb enameled and gilded Mamluk vessels found their way to China, Korea, and Japan. The best-known examples are the Sasanian cups in the treasury of the Shosoin temple at Nara in Japan and the eighteen ninth- and tenth-century Islamic vessels that surfaced from the stupa of a Buddhist temple in the Shaanxi province about a quarter of a century ago. In the case of glass, of course, we cannot refer to cross-artistic connections between the two poles of the Silk Roads and in between. With rare exceptions, East Asian craftsmen never seriously undertook glassmaking. Technological challenges and lack of goodquality raw materials, combined with the fact that the import of glass was a well-established trade, prevented the growth of a glass industry in eastern Asia.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Minaret of the Emin Mosque in Turfan

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Marleen Kassel, Xinjiang, 2001)

Another interesting aspect of the artistic connections between distant regions of Asia is the taste for white porcelain decorated with dark blue designs that developed in the Yuan period and became especially popular during the Ming dynasty in China. The so-called blue-and-white ware is usually regarded as one of the most distinctive Chinese artistic products exported and appreciated in ﬁfteenth century Timurid Central Asia, in sixteenth and seventeenth century Safavid Iran, and eighteenth and nineteenth century Western Europe. Yet the story is not so straightforward; it involves western Asian mineral sources and craftsmen as well. The cobalt oxides that were used to obtain the dark blue color came from eastern Iranian and Central Asian mines, as did lapis lazuli, another intense blue mineral that was among the most expensive minerals exported from the area. In addition, the ﬁrst examples of the use of cobalt blue against a white tin-glazed background are not from China but from ninth century Abbasid Iraq. A connection between the taste for blue-and-white ware in Iraq in the early medieval period and that of thirteenth century China is not clear, but the ongoing trade of cobalt from western to eastern Asia can be established beyond any doubt. In this case, therefore, it was probably the trade in a sought-after mineral that provided the link between two distant areas of Asia. In conclusion, it seems clear that the cross-artistic connection along the Silk Roads logically followed the same patterns established for any other type of cultural, political, scientiﬁc, and commercial exchanges and was evidently an integral part of the same process. Thus, artistic interconnections were less evident during periods of disruption on the main routes—following, for example, the xenophobic attitude of the late Tang dynasty or the general reduction of the caravan trade after the ﬁfteenth century, particularly under Ming rule. During periods of ease of communication they became more proliﬁc, most notably during the exceptional moment of Mongol domination that uniﬁed the entire continent but also, for instance, after the Uyghur empire collapsed and Uyghurs became active traders all over Asia. Artistic exchange distinguishes itself from all other types of cross-cultural connections because its story is told not only through written sources, but also, fortunately for us, through the hundreds, if not thousands, of extant works of art that speak so brilliantly about the fertile imagination of Asian artists. With art, it is so easy to understand connections, reciprocal inﬂuences, and cross-fertilization. At the same time, it is a feast for the eye and for the spirit.

PART I Essays— From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

PART II

Curriculum FROM SILK TO OIL MAPS—THE SILK ROADS 1 GEOGRAPHY ALONG THE SILK ROADS 2 ETHNIC RELATIONS AND POLITICAL HISTORY ALONG THE SILK ROADS 3 EXCHANGE OF GOODS AND IDEAS ALONG THE SILK ROADS 4 RELIGIONS ALONG THE SILK ROADS 5 ART ALONG THE SILK ROADS

Maps—The Silk Roads

Map A Inner Asia’s Major Ecological Zones Map B Central and Northern Asia—Political Map C Central and Northern Asia: Political—Outline Map Map D From Chang’an (Modern Xi’an) to Constantinople—Places along the Silk Roads Map E The Han Empire Map F Central and Southwest Asia—Political Map G Central and Southwest Asia—Outline Map Map H The Middle East on the Eve of the Muslim Era Map I The Arab-Muslim Empire to 750 CE Map J The Mongol Empire (1294) Map K Asia and the South Pacific: Political

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

Map A Inner Asia’s Major Ecological Zones

Redrawn after Thomas J. Barfield. 1989. The Perilous Frontier. Oxford: Basil Blackwell

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

Persian Gulf

ck S

Bla

EUROPE

B a lti c S ea

10 E

20 E

Moscow

n Sea

s p ia

40 30 E

Aral Sea

Arabian Sea

Ashkhabad

TURKMENISTAN

Astana

Kara Sea

60 E

KAZAKHSTAN

50 E

Tashkent ashkent Tashk Dushanbe

90 E

RUSSIA

80 E

KYRGYZSTAN

70 E

TAJIKISTAN

Bishkek Bishkek ek

UZBEKISTAN

Barents Sea

40 E

100 E

120 E

CHINA

MONGOLIA

Ulaanbaatar

Lake Baikal

110 E

Map B Central and Northern Asia’s—Political

130 E

140 E

C ir

cl e

250

c Tropi

of C

ance

150 E

500 miles

500 kilometers

250

National boundary National capital

LEGEND

t Ar c

N 60

East China Sea

Sea of Japan

Sea of Okhotsk

160 E

170

PAC OCE

Map B Central and Northern Asia’s—Political

Persian Gulf

ck S

Bla

B a lti c S ea

10 E

20 E

n Sea

s p ia

30 E

Arabian Sea

Aral Sea

Barents Sea

40 E 50 E

Kara Sea

60 E 70 E

80 E 90 E

100 E

120 E

Lake Baikal

110 E

130 E

Map C Central and Northern Asia: Political—Outline Map

ti c

C ir

cl e

250

c Tropi

of C

a nce

150 E

500 miles

500 kilometers

250

National boundary National capital

LEGEND

Ar c

140 E

East China Sea

Sea of Japan

Sea of Okhotsk

160 E

170 E

N 30

PACIFIC OCEAN

Map C Central and Northern Asia: Political—Outline Map

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

Map D From Chang’an (Modern Xi’an in China) to the Middle East—Places Along the Silk Roads

Source: From Judy Bonavia. 1988. The Silk Road—From Xi’an to Kashgar. Odyssey Publications Ltd.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

Map E The Han Empire

Copyright © 2004 National Geographic Society. All rights reserved. http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0402/feature1/images/mp_download.1.pdf PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

Map F Central and Southwest Asia—Political

RUSSIA

Map F Central and Southwest Asia—Political

Ukraine

KAZAKHSTAN

Uzbekistan

Georgia Turkey

Lebanon Israel

Egypt

Armenia Azerbaijan

Turkmenistan

Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan

China

Syria Iraq

Afghanistan

Iran

Jordan

Kuwait Bahrain Qatar Saudi Arabia U.A.E.

Nepal

Pakistan

India

Oman Arabian Sea Sudan

Entrea

Yemen

Ethiopia

Somalia

W S

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

Map G Central and Southwest Asia—Outline Map

N E

W S

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

Map H The Middle East on the Eve of the Muslim Era

Source: Ira M. Lapidus, 1988. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Map I The Arab-Muslim Empire to 750 CE

Source: Ira M. Lapidus, 1988. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

Map J The Mongol Empire (1294)

From A Brief History of Chinese Civilization 1st edition by Conrad Schirokauer © 1990. Reprinted with permission of Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning: http://www.thomson.com/learning/learning.jsp Fax 800-730-2215 PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

Map K Asia and the South Pacific: Political

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: Maps—The Silk Roads

A Chronological Table—The Silk Roads •

In the fourth millennium BCE, the Chinese learnt how to make silk.

•

As early as the fourth millennium BCE, the camel was domesticated.

•

By the second millennium BCE, from Europe to China, horses were domesticated and used to pull wagons and chariots. The development of the lightweight, spoked wheel for military chariots also occurred around this time.

•

1070 BCE Silk found in an Egyptian tomb is early evidence for the silk trade across Eurasia.

•

c. 500 BCE Life of Siddhartha Gautama, the “Buddha” or “Enlightened One.”

321-185 BCE—MAURYAN EMPIRE India’s ﬁrst uniﬁed empire, it controlled north and central India and

parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan. King Ashoka (273-232 BCE) attempted to establish a state based on Buddhist morality. 247 BCE-224 CE—PARTHIAN EMPIRE At its height, the Parthian empire controlled Iran, most of the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia. Parthia was the middleman in trade between Rome and China along the Silk Roads. 221-206 BCE—QIN DYNASTY In 221 the state of Qin uniﬁed China. 202 BCE-220 CE—HAN DYNASTY The Han dynasty extended China’s frontiers to what is now northern

Vietnam and northern Korea. At times it also controlled the eastern leg of the Silk Roads. •

198-134 BCE Series of treaties between China and the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu were a nomadic

pastoral people living along China’s northern frontiers. Their raids were China’s major foreign policy problem in the Han. The early Silk Roads were closely connected to Han foreign policy. One means by which the Chinese prevented Xiongnu raids was to bribe them with huge quantities of silk. Some of this silk was traded by the Xiongnu further west. In the ﬁrst century BCE, the amount of silk imported to the Roman Empire increased tremendously, perhaps as a result of such nomad trade. •

140-87 BCE Reign of Han emperor Wu. His aggressive foreign policy sought to destroy the Xiongnu.

•

139-126 BCE Emperor Wu sent Zhang Qian west to seek allies and war horses to use against the Xiongnu. He returned with the ﬁrst direct news about regions west of China.

•

106 BCE First Chinese caravan said to enter Parthian territory.

•

During the ﬁrst century BCE Parthia sent envoys to the Roman emperor as well as to Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: A Chronological Table—The Silk Roads

c. 2nd century BCE-3rd century CE—KUSHAN EMPIRE The Kushans controlled parts of northwest

India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and the southern routes of the Silk Roads across the Tarim basin. •

Kushan control of the Silk Roads facilitated the spread of Buddhism to China. Gandhara, a region in northwest Pakistan formerly occupied by Alexander the Great’s successors, is part of the Kushan empire. Consequently, Kushan art is inﬂuenced by Greek and Roman myths and art styles.

•

The ﬁrst images of the Buddha are produced in the Kushan period.

27 BCE-476 CE—ROMAN EMPIRE During the reign of Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE), ﬁrst Roman emper-

or, long-distance silk trade with China greatly increased.

BCE/CE •

65 First evidence of the practice of Buddhism in China.

c. 2nd century BCE-3rd century CE—The KUSHAN EMPIRE controlled parts of northwest India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and the southern routes of the Silk Roads across the Tarim basin. Their control of the Silk Road facilitated the spread of Buddhism to China.

•

90-130 CE China controlled the Tarim Basin, the eastern part of the Silk Roads.

•

105 Traditional date for the invention of paper in China. It had, in fact, been in use well before this time.

•

By the second or third century CE, silk was being produced in Central Asia.

•

220 Abdication of the last Han emperor and fall of the dynasty.

220-589—THREE KINGDOMS / NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN DYNASTIES (“PERIOD OF DISUNION”) One of the most turbulent eras in Chinese history. Except for a brief period at the end of the

third century, China wouldn’t be united again until 581. From the early 3rd century, north China was ruled by non-Chinese and the south was governed by refugees from the north. •

During the third and fourth centuries, Buddhism began to spread in both north and south China.

224-651—SASANIAN DYNASTY The Sasanids controlled the Iranian plateau, Afghanistan, Pakistan,

and parts of Central Asia. They ruled until the Islamic conquest (completed in 651).

•

c. 300 Knowledge of silk manufacture reached India.

•

366 Earliest Buddhist cave at Dunhuang.

•

Sixth century: rise of the Turkic empire. Originating in what is now Mongolia, at its height it extended west as far as Byzantium. At times the Turks controlled the Silk Roads.

•

By the sixth century, knowledge of silk manufacture had been acquired by the Byzantine court.

•

c. 570 Birth of Muhammad.

•

581-618—Sui dynasty uniﬁed China.

•

Between the seventh and ninth centuries, China’s main rivals for territory in Central Asia were the Turks and Tibetans.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: A Chronological Table—The Silk Roads

618-907—TANG DYNASTY Perhaps the most cosmopolitan period in China’s history. Arabs, Persians, Indians, Turks, Syrians, Tibetans, Koreans, and Japanese traveled to China to live, conduct business, and study.

•

622 The Hijra (Arabic for “Migration”): Muhammad and his followers went from Mecca to Medina to escape powerful enemies and forge new political alliances.

Not long after the Hijra, Muslims began to enter Tang China. From Tang to Song (c. 600-1300), thousands of Muslim traders took up residence in China’s major commercial cities. •

629-645 Xuanzang’s pilgrimage to India.

•

632 Death of the Prophet Muhammad.

661-750—UMAYYAD CALIPHATE The ﬁrst Islamic dynasty. Islam was now the dominant power in the

arid zone extending from the Atlantic to the border of India. •

712-756 Reign of Tang emperor Xuanzong. China’s contacts with Central Asia and Iran were at their height.

•

744-840 The Uyghur empire. A Turkic people, the Uyghurs maintained cordial relations with China

and provided troops to ﬁght the Tibetans. They also helped defeat the An Lushan rebellion (below). 750-1258—ABBASID CALIPHATE The Abbasids ruled from their capital at Baghdad, the largest city in the world outside of China. In disparaging the dominance of an Arab elite, their rule acknowledged the equality of all Muslims.

•

751 The Chinese were defeated by Arabs at the battle of the Talas River. Chinese control over Central Asia is now a thing of the past.

Arab sources claim that Chinese craftsman captured at the battle transmitted knowledge of paper-making to Central Asia. In reality, Buddhist monks had brought papermaking to the region much earlier. •

755-763 The An Lushan Rebellion almost destroyed the Tang. It marked the beginning of the

dynasty’s decline, as warlords rose in the provinces and competed for power with the central government. •

907-960—Five Dynasties Period Last Tang emperor deposed. Five regimes succeeded each other in north China, and ten states coexisted in the south.

•

935 The Abbasid empire had by now broken up into various independent regimes. With the decline of Abbasid central power, the empire’s borders were open to nomads from Inner Asia. From the tenth to the fourteenth century, migrating Turkic peoples established kingdoms and gradually converted to Islam.

•

During the tenth and eleventh centuries several states rose in north Asia. The Khitan (a Mongolian people), the Tangut (a Tibetan people), and the Jurchen (from Manchuria) all adopted Chinese-style bureaucratic institutions.

•

By the tenth century, knowledge of paper-making had reached the Middle East and North Africa.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: A Chronological Table—The Silk Roads

960-1127—NORTHERN SONG DYNASTY Song China was wealthy and culturally ﬂourishing, but not expansionist. Unlike Han and Tang, it had to contend with strong north Asian neighbor states.

•

1055 The Abbasid caliphate was seized by the Seljuk Turks, who reunited much of the empire. Their

rule lasted until 1255. The Caliph retained religious and moral authority, but political power rested with the Seljuk “Sultan” (“power”). •

1071 Battle of Manzikert. Byzantine emperor captured by the Turks. During the next century, the Turks spread throughout Asia Minor.

•

c. 1100 Silk began to be manufactured in Italy.

•

1126 The Jurchens overthrew Northern Song and took north China. The Song court ﬂed south.

1127-1279—SOUTHERN SONG DYNASTY The Chinese not only paid tribute to the Jurchen, but also

maintained a million men at arms. •

Southern Song was the dominant maritime power in East Asia.

•

c. 1162-1227 Chingghis Khan. In the early thirteenth century he united the Mongol tribes and laid the foundations for the largest empire in world history.

•

1234 The Mongols destroyed the Jurchen state and occupied north China.

•

1242-1243 The Mongols defeated and make vassals of the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia.

•

1245-1247 John of Plano Carpini, a Franciscan sent by the pope, visited the Great Khan in

Mongolia. His account is considered the ﬁrst authentic description of Asia by a European. 1258-1353—ILKHANID DYNASTY After storming Baghdad and destroying the Abbasid Caliphate, the Mongols now ruled Iran and parts of the Middle East.

•

1271 Khubilai Khan, Chinggis’ grandson, became emperor in north China and adopted the dynastic name “Yuan” (“Originating”).

•

1271-1295 Travels of Marco Polo.

•

By the late 1200s, the Mongols ruled all Eurasia from central Europe to the Paciﬁc. This empire was divided among Chingghis’ four sons.

1279-1368—YUAN DYNASTY For the ﬁrst time since the Tang, China was a geographic whole under

Mongol rule. By the mid-thirteenth century excessive taxation, inﬂation, famine, and natural disasters sparked rebellion against the dynasty. Ultimately, one of the rebel movements expelled the Mongols and found the succeeding Ming dynasty (see below).

•

China’s Mongol rulers employed many Muslims in government and other professions. China’s modern Muslim population had its origins in these immigrants from West and central Asia.

•

c. 1280-1453 Rise of the Ottoman Turks.

•

1295 The Polos returned home to Venice.

•

1336 The Ilkhanid empire divided into various rival states.

•

1345 Ibn Battuta in China.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: A Chronological Table—The Silk Roads

1350-1918—OTTOMAN EMPIRE At its height, the Ottoman empire extended from the

western Mediterranean to Iran, and from the Ukraine to Yemen. It included Greece, the Balkans, Hungary, and parts of southwestern Russia. 1368-1644—MING DYNASTY Rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang defeated his rivals, took Beijing, and

became the ﬁrst Ming emperor. Ming China had a monopoly on the world market for porcelain and, until the mid-nineteenth century, China’s huge export surplus made it the ﬁnal destination for much New World silver. •

1370-1405 The conquests of Timur the Great (Tamerlane, 1370-1405) established an empire in

Central Asia, Iran, Iraq, Syria, and northern India. Timur died while en route to conquer China. TIMURID DYNASTY Timur’s empire lasted for a century after his death. Under

the Timurids, literature, the arts, architecture, and the sciences ﬂourished in Central Asia and Iran. •

1405-1433 Muslim Admiral Zheng He’s voyages expanded Ming China’s inﬂuence in Southeast Asia. His last expedition reached Arabia and the east coast of Africa.

•

1453 The Turks conquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople.

•

1501-1510 Safavid conquest of Iran. The Safavids began as a Muslim religious movement and grew to become a political/military force.

1501-1723—SAFAVID DYNASTY Under the Safavids, Shi’ism became the dominant form of Islam in Iran.

•

1517 The ﬁrst European ships (Portuguese) reached Chinese shores.

•

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the volume of Silk Road trade between China and the Middle East declined signiﬁcantly. This was due in part to hostility between Shi’ite Iran and the Sunni Ottoman empire.

•

1547 Ivan IV (“The Terrible”) became Tsar of a uniﬁed Russia and laid the foundations of the Russian empire. In little more than a century, Russia reached the Paciﬁc and laid claim to Siberia.

•

c. 1600 The Manchus began to develop the military and bureaucratic skills that took them from

being a tribal confederation to rulers of China. •

1644 Rebels took Beijing and the last Ming emperor committed suicide. A Chinese general invited the Manchus to enter China and avenge the fallen dynasty.

1644-1911—QING DYNASTY At its height, the Qing was a multi-ethnic empire that included Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang province), and Tibet. During the nineteenth century, the dynasty survived catastrophic internal rebellions and the intrusion of the West.

•

1681 Manchu conquest of China completed.

•

1689 The Treaty of Nerchinsk settled frontier problems and stabilized relations between Russia and China.

•

1720 A pro-Chinese Dalai Lama was set up. This was the beginning of Chinese intervention in Tibet.

•

1759 After a century of Muslim resistance, the Qing dynasty controlled what is now called “Xinjiang”

(“New Dominion”). This vast region of desert, mountain, and steppe, also called Chinese Turkestan, was the geographic setting for the eastern part of the Silk Roads.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: A Chronological Table—The Silk Roads

•

During the eighteenth century, Russia began its expansion into Central Asia.

•

Beginning in the 1780s, northwest China became the stage for a century and a half of violence—from inter-village feuds to large-scale uprisings.

•

1779-1925 The Qajar dynasty ruled Iran. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the

Russians (Inner Asia) and the British (Aghanistan) carved out spheres of inﬂuence that encroached on Iranian territory and interests. •

During the nineteenth century, the Ottoman empire, the “sick man of Europe,” became a pawn in the rivalry between the European colonial powers.

•

1839-1842 The Opium War. Defeated by Great Britain, China had to open ﬁve ports to Western trade.

•

1853-1864 The Taiping Rebellion almost succeeded in destroying the Qing dynasty.

•

1862-1873 Large scale Muslim rebellions in northwest China.

•

1865-1884 Russian conquest of Central Asia.

•

1868 Completion of the Russian annexation of Kazakhstan.

•

1884 China annexed Xinjiang.

•

1894-1895 Japan defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War.

•

By the end of the nineteenth century, the entire Muslim world had been divided up among the European powers and China. Inner Asia was under Russian and Chinese rule.

•

1900 A Daoist monk discovered a huge cache of documents sealed up in one of the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. One of the most important archeological discoveries of the twentieth century.

•

1911 A provincial revolt began the Revolution of 1911 that toppled the Qing dynasty.

•

1911-1949 Between the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the People’s Republic of

China, Xinjiang, nominally part of the Chinese Republic, was autonomous and ruled by warlords.

•

1912 Russian immigrants in the Kazakh steppe now amounted to forty-percent of the population.

•

1914 The Ottoman Empire entered World War I as an ally of Germany.

•

1916 The Sykes-Picot Agreement redrew the map of the Middle East. The provinces of the Ottoman Empire were divided among the soon-to-be victorious allies. Turkey (Anatolia) was the only area that came out of the war an independent state.

•

1917 The October Revolution in Russia ended the Tsarist regime.

•

1921 Establishment of the Mongolian People’s Republic, modeled after the USSR.

•

1923 Mustafa Kemal Ataturk named president of the Turkish Republic for life.

•

1924 Under the Communists, all of Russian Inner Asia was by now divided into Soviet Socialist Republics.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: A Chronological Table—The Silk Roads

•

1925-1979 The Pahlavi dynasty in Iran. The Pahlavis built a centralized government and a modern

army. •

1933 Uyghurs in Xinjiang rebelled and brieﬂy established a Turkish Islamic Republic.

•

1944 Kazakh and Uyghur rebellions in Xinjiang. A second Turkish Islamic Republic was established and lasted until the Communist victory in 1949.

•

1946 Return of Xinjiang to China.

•

1954 Creation of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps. This state-owned enterprise

recruits Chinese from all over the PRC to settle in Xinjiang. Sometime early this century, ethnic Chinese will be in the majority. •

1962 Communization of farm and grazing land in Xinjiang forced eighty-thousand Kazakhs to ﬂee to

the USSR in order to escape starvation. •

1979 The Shah of Iran was deposed and the monarchy replaced by an Islamic republic.

•

1986 Completion of the Karakorum Highway connected western Xinjiang to Pakistan.

•

1991 With the breakup of the Soviet Union, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Krgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan became independent republics.

•

1992 Under the inﬂuence of perestroika in the Soviet Union, Mongolia became a parliamentary

democracy.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: A Chronological Table—The Silk Roads

1. Geography Along The Silk Roads Unit A THE MULTIPLE ENVIRONMENTS OF EURASIA AND INNER ASIA Unit B TRADITIONAL VS. MODERN USES OF NATURAL RESOURCES: THE CASE OF THE ARAL SEA Unit C OASES, TOWNS, AND CARAVANS

Unit A

THE MULTIPLE ENVIRONMENTS

UNIT 1 – A

OF INNER AND CENTRAL ASIA

Essential Question: How has the geography and environment of Inner Asia shaped the way the peoples of this region have inﬂuenced history? Learning Experience: Students will be asked to analyze geographic information on Inner and Central Asia. Activities will encourage students to compare and contrast various geographic features of Central Asia and their impact on its inhabitants. Anticipatory Set: Have you ever moved? Imagine a lifestyle where you and your family (and everything you own) move from place to place with the change of seasons. Or else imagine living in an oasis town that gets so hot in summer that you and your family spend most of your time living in the cellar. Context: What is Inner Asia?

INNER ASIA Inner Asia includes the following regions and countries:

1. CENTRAL ASIA:

2. 3. 4. 5.

Xinjiang (China’s largest province) Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Northern Afghanistan

SOUTHERN SIBERIA INNER MONGOLIA MONGOLIA TIBET

Inner Asia is the setting for the Silk Roads. Its two most signiﬁcant geographic features are •

Its remoteness from the sea (hence the word “Inner”) and thus, very dry, moisture-bearing winds from the ocean lose their wetness by the time they reach Inner Asia. Average rainfalls cannot support farming.

•

It is continental (a “continent” is a continuous body of land). “In coastal regions, seas moderate temperature changes, because the sea cools more slowly than the land. Large land masses allow more extreme ﬂuctuations of temperature and more severe climates” (Christian 1998: 7). PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

UNIT

These geographical factors mean that Inner Asia doesn’t produce much food and can’t support high population densities (Christian 1998: 8, 9). The poverty of the environment is in sharp contrast to the importance of the region as a conduit for trade and as the homeland of great nomadic empires.

1 – A

Inner Asia has four major ecological zones: forests, steppe (grasslands), deserts, and mountains (see Map A). A useful web site for introducing Earth’s varied environments is http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/world_biomes.htm.

1. Forests (the taiga) are a rich source of fur, timber, and other products. In the past, the hunters, trappers, and ﬁshermen who lived in these more northerly places didn’t, however, ﬁgure importantly in the region’s history. 2. The Inner Asian steppe or grasslands stretches across Kazakhstan, northern Xinjiang province in China, and Mongolia. This is the “eastern half of the great Eurasian steppes, those rolling plains of grass and scrubland punctuated by high mountain ranges, extending from the borders of Manchuria westward to the Black Sea and the plains of Hungary” (Barﬁeld 1989: 16). The peoples who founded the great nomadic empires—Xiongnu,1 Turks, and Mongols— all depended on their herds (horses, sheep, camels) for survival. The steppe provided them with essential pasture for their animals. 3. Early travelers thought that Inner Asian deserts such as the Gobi and Taklamakan were ﬁlled with demons. Although desert environments differ (the Gobi, for example, is not a sandy desert, but is a desert comprised of many rocks), all are barriers to trade and travel. 4. Although the great mountain ranges were barriers to trade and travel, in many parts of Inner Asia they were the major source of water. The agricultural oasis towns circling the Tarim basin, for instance, couldn’t survive without the snowmelt from nearby mountains. The steppes, deserts, and oases of the southern part of Inner Asia (Mongolia; Xinjiang, the largest and farthest west of China’s provinces; southern Kazakhstan) was a frontier separating the nomad world from the agrarian civilizations of China and Persia. From ancient times to roughly the eighteenth century CE, the movement of peoples in this region was a central element in Eurasian (and world) history. With the expansion of the Russian empire and China’s Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Inner Asia’s pastoral nomads lost the power to effect major historical change. Rationale: Unique topography and climate make Inner Asia a case study in how humans adapt to varied geographical contexts. The study of its geography and environment opens a door to better understanding of the central role this region played in world history. Time: One to two forty-minute sessions. Instructional Resources: Eleven documents with accompanying questions; “Matching Exercise: Important Terms”; Map questions: “What is Eurasia? What is Inner Asia? What is Central Asia?” “The Ecological Zones of Inner Asia.” Some documents may be primary sources, and some may be secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

The Xiongnu empire was the major foreign policy threat to the Chinese state for much of the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE). See Unit D: The Han, the Xiongnu, and China’s Traditional Foreign Relations.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

Using NASA’s “Visible Earth” web site (http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/), students can also access some spectacular color satellite photos of the Tarim Basin, eastern end of the Silk Road in China’s Xinjiang province. (Just enter “Xinjiang” in the site’s search function.)

UNIT 1 – A

Tarim Basin

(Source: Photo: NASA http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/images/4811/Taklimakan.A2002306.0740.1km.jpg)

Procedure: Students will complete the document-based short answer questions; the matching exercise, and the map questions. Whole Group Reflection: In class discussion, students will emphasize how geographic features have a signiﬁcant impact on people’s lives in both past and present. They should be able to identify places where they would choose to settle and justify their choices based on knowledge of Inner Asia’s geography. Instructional Modification: As homework, students can do the following creative writing assignment to help internalize knowledge about Inner Asia’s geography and environment.

•

Geography in the News: Students will create the weather section of a newspaper or news broadcast on the various geographic regions of Inner Asia or Xinjiang province. Articles will focus on the weather, seasonal changes, and geographic features. The news should include human-interest stories regarding the impact of the environment on the lives of the residents.

Application: How does geography affect students’ lives today? How does it affect the choices they make for the future? How are their concerns similar to, and different from, the people of Inner Asia? What are the similarities and differences in the way geography inﬂuences industrial as opposed to nonindustrial societies?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

A. DOCUMENT-BASED SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS UNIT 1 – A

DOCUMENT 1: THE CLIMATE OF CENTRAL ASIA Inner Asia and Central Asia are far away from oceans and are therefore very dry. This is because winds from the ocean lose their moisture by the time they reach the region. Holding little humidity, winds in this region produce only limited condensation even as they are cooled. Average annual rainfall throughout the region cannot support farming.

Central Asia has some of the greatest climatic extremes in the world. Owing to its vast size and the distance of the interior from the moderating inﬂuences of the ocean, there is a tremendous difference in temperatures between summer and winter. The dryness of the air over the desert permits a large proportion of the sun’s heat to penetrate to the surface, so that during the brief summer the bare earth becomes very hot. Rock surfaces exposed to the sun may have a temperature of 150º F or above during the middle of the day while the air itself may be 100º F. During the winter the transparent nature of the atmosphere permits radiation to cool the earth excessively so that the weather becomes bitterly cold, with temperatures down to -40º F. Descending air currents also bring cold air from the upper atmosphere. This region has two seasons rather than four. Winter may be said to last for eight months and is abruptly followed by a short, hot summer. Frosts occur early in September and the few streams are frozen by October (Adapted from Cressey 1934: 252).

1. Why does Central Asia have such great climatic extremes?

2. What is the longest season in Central Asia?

3. Imagine how this type of climate might affect the inhabitants in the following categories: Livelihood Clothing Housing Activities

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 2: THE DESERT OASIS UNIT

Oases are desert areas that have water supplies able to support vegetation. The water comes from melted snowfall in higher mountain ranges that feed underground springs, which can travel for hundreds of miles to water the oases.

1 – A

Irrigation Allows Oasis Towns To Become Islands Of Green In The Central Asian Desert

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Marleen Kassel, 2001, Xinjiang)

The key to understanding the desert is water. Without it the landscape is empty and without life; with water, the desert becomes a beautiful land of grass and ﬂowers .… Fixed settlement is restricted to those areas where the rainfall is sufficient for a little vegetation, or where water may be obtained from wells, springs, or mountain streams. Where this is possible, small communities may arise. Such communities, however, are as isolated from the outside world as islands in the ocean. These oases form the stopping points along the caravan trails which cross the desert. Often the wells are too small or the water too poor to permit settlement (Adapted from Cressey 1934: 255).

1. Where can people settle in a desert environment?

2. Name two sources of water in an oasis.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 3: THE KAREZ SYSTEM AND FARMING THE OASES UNIT

Part Of A Karez. The Bucket Suspended Over The Water Comes From Above Ground.

1 – A

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Marleen Kassel, 2001, Xinjiang)

The oasis towns that ﬂourish in the arid region along the Silk Road depend on an ancient system of water distribution known as the karez. The word karez is from the Uyghur2 language: Kar means “well” and ez means “underground.” Depending on gravity, the karez consist of underground channels that bring water down from the melting snow in distant mountain ranges. Since the water ﬂows underground, it doesn’t evaporate in the ﬁerce heat of this desert region. The chief tools for digging the karez are simple: the hammer and the pickaxe. The main parts of the karez are (1) the subsurface tunnels that collect and transport water; (2) the openings at ground level that allow workers to maintain the channels—the most important job being to make sure the water ﬂow isn’t interrupted by the accumulation of ﬁne particles of earth, called silt, suspended in the water; (3) the ponds that collect the water just before it is channeled into the ﬁelds. Since more than ninety percent of the land in Central Asia requires irrigation, agriculture would be impossible without the karez. Karez are used to water wheat, corn, sorghum (a grain resistant to drought and heat), rice, melons, grapes, and sugar beets. Long-staple cotton, which thrives in an arid climate, is also grown in the Tarim Basin.

1. Where does the water for the karez come from? 2. What is the most important job in maintaining the karez?

China’s more than 8 million Uyghurs are a Turkic Muslim people. See Unit G: China’s Uyghurs—A Disaffected Muslim Minority.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 4: POPULATION DENSITY IN XINJIANG UNIT

Region

Persons/sq. mi.

Xinjiang Province

Oases in Xinjiang

407

Turpan Basin

900

1 – A

(Hsieh 1995: 150)

1. Compare the population density of Xinjiang’s oases to the province as a whole.

2. Using the information in Documents 2, 3, and the chart above, write a brief paragraph (three or four sentences) explaining why oases can support human settlement.

DOCUMENT 5: THE EURASIAN FOREST (TAIGA) A vast belt of forestland borders the northern part of Eurasia, from Siberia to Finland, an area that is extremely cold in winter. This Eurasian forest is often called by its Russian name, “taiga” (forest). Trees in this environment are evergreens, such as ﬁr, spruce, and pine. Combined with the forest that stretches across Canada, the taiga forest is the most extensive of all the world’s environmental regions. The taiga is home to fur-bearing animals such as mink, sable, and ermine. The human population is very small, with most of the people of the taiga living by hunting, ﬁshing, or trapping. In modern times, the main threat to this environment “is the wasteful and ever growing consumption of wood products—above all paper—in the industrialized world” (http://www.taigarescue.org/index.php?view_article=70).

1. Name two natural resources provided by the taiga. 2. Considering the type of trees and animals mentioned above, what common characteristics allow them to survive in this ecological zone?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 6: THE STEPPE UNIT 1 – A

Life in the steppe is completely dependent upon grass, and grass is completely dependent upon the rainfall. Agriculture is almost out of the question, and for most of the region the only possible occupation is in the keeping of animals. Sheep, horses, camels, and cattle live on the short steppe grass and permit nomads to make a living. From them, they obtain milk, butter, and cheese, which make up a large part of their diet. Clothing and shelter are both made from the wool of the sheep, while the other animals provide the only modes of transportation. In the absence of wood, even the dried dung of the animals, known in Mongolian as argol, is used as fuel; great piles of dung can be seen about every encampment. All life centers in the quest for grass. When it fails, life fails; when it is abundant, prosperity rules. Since the grass is usually too short to be cut, there is no possibility of storing it. The people of the grasslands are thus nomads, constantly on the move in search of pastures (Adapted from Cressey 1934: 255). Mongolian Steppe

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Augustinus Wibowo Weng Hongming, 2002, Mongolia) http://www.worldisround.com/articles/12332/photo7.html

1. Give two examples of how animals support the nomads.

2. Why do nomads have to move from place to place?

3. Find examples to support the following statement: Local geography determines what the nomads eat, sleep, and wear.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 7: THE YURT UNIT 1 – A

(Source: Cressey 1934: 258)

The nomadic life of the herdsmen calls for a dwelling that can be made of local products, is easily transported, and affords sufficient protection from the bitter climate of winter. The result is the feltcovered tent, or yurt, twelve to ﬁfteen feet in diameter and seldom much higher than a man’s head. The yurt consists of a collapsible framework of willow sticks ... over which are placed layers of thick felt made of sheep’s wool. A low wooden door affords access on one side; one of the felts on the top may be thrown back to let out the smoke of the argol ﬁre. There are no windows, and in many yurts there is no room to stand (Cressey 1934: 258-259).

1. How does the yurt allow nomads ease of movement from place to place?

2. Why does the yurt fit the nomadic lifestyle? (Use information from Documents 4 and 5.)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 8: WHAT IS PASTORAL NOMADISM? UNIT 1 – A

The word “pastoral” means having to with shepherds or the country.

Pastoral nomadism is the commonly used term for a form of mobile stock-raising in which families migrate with their animals from one seasonal pasture to another through a yearly cycle. The most distinctive cultural feature of this economic adaptation is that nomadic pastoral societies are adapted to the demands of mobility and the needs of their livestock . . . Inner Asian pastoralism traditionally depended on exploiting the extensive but seasonal grassland of the steppes and mountains . . . The herds consisted of a mix of grazing animals including sheep, goats, cattle, horses, camels, and sometimes yaks . . . Sheep are by far the most important subsistence animal raised and the mainstay of Inner Asian pastoralism. They provide milk and meat for food, wool and hides for clothing or housing, and dung which could be dried and used as fuel (Barﬁeld 1989: 20, 21).

1. Why do pastoral nomads need to migrate?

2. What is the most important animal raised by Inner Asian nomads?

DOCUMENT 9: THE GOBI DESERT The population of the Gobi is far less than in the steppe country which precedes it. Indeed, none but the Mongol and his constant companion the camel could inhabit these regions because there is so little water and timber, it is scorched by an almost tropical heat in summer, and chilled in winter to an icy cold (Adapted from Przheval’skii 1876: 20-21).

1. Describe two harsh conditions of the Gobi desert.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 10: THE TIANSHAN AND PAMIR MOUNTAIN RANGES* UNIT

Khan Tengri (“Lord of the Sky”) in the Tianshan Range (23, 620 ft.).

1 – A

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh, 1999)

The Tianshan and Pamir mountain ranges are the most important in Central Asia (Map A). They provide much of the region’s renewable water supply because (1) they are the sources of major rivers, and (2) the runoff from melting mountain snow provides water to feed underground springs. These springs enable farmers in desert oases (see Document 2) to grow grain, fruits, and vegetables. Also, water stored up in glaciers and frozen mountain soil provides a reserve supply in years of drought. Nomadic herdsmen also relied on the mountains. Some tribes would move to higher altitudes when summer heat dried up pools of water and destroyed the grasses that fed their herds. Mountains are also barriers to travel. In the early seventh century, a Chinese Buddhist monk named Xuanzang crossed the Tianshan on his way to India. He had the following to say about Khan Tengri (photo above): This mountain is steep and dangerous, and reaches up to the clouds. From the beginning of time the perpetual snow has collected here in piles, and has been changed into glaciers which melt neither in winter nor summer . . . looking at them the eye is blinded with glare, so that it cannot long gaze at them (Wriggins 1996: 29-30).

1. Why are mountain ranges important to farming?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

A. MATCHING EXERCISE UNIT 1 – A

IMPORTANT TERMS Match up the following terms with the deﬁnitions given below. • • • • • • • • •

Arid Desert Felt Nomadic Oases Pastoral Steppe Taiga Yurt

DEFINITIONS:

Fabric made by bonding wool fibers together using heat and pressure.

Moving from place to place in search of grazing land for animals.

Felt-covered tent used by steppe nomads.

Dry, without moisture.

Russian name for the vast forest belt that stretches across Eurasia from Siberia to Finland.

Grazing ground for nomad herds, made up of low trees and bushes.

Desert regions possessing water supplies capable of supporting vegetation.

Lifestyle based on livestock raising.

Barren land receiving less than ten inches precipitation annually.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

B. MAP EXERCISES UNIT

1. WHAT IS EURASIA? WHAT IS INNER ASIA? WHAT IS CENTRAL ASIA? Materials:

• •

1 – A

Blank map (Map C) Map A and Map B (and an atlas from the school library, if necessary) as references.

Using colored pencils or ballpoint pen, indicate the following regions on the blank map:

1. EURASIA “Eurasia” means the combined continents of Europe and Asia.

2. INNER ASIA Inner Asia includes the following regions and countries:

1. CENTRAL ASIA: Xinjiang (China’s largest province) Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Northern Afghanistan

2. 3. 4. 5.

SOUTHERN SIBERIA INNER MONGOLIA MONGOLIA TIBET

2. THE ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF INNER ASIA A. Using the outline map (Map C) and Map A and Map B as a reference, shade in the major ecological zones of Inner Asia:

1. TAIGA FOREST (Document 4) 2. STEPPE (Documents 5, 6, 7, 8) 3. DESERT (Documents 2, 9) 4. MOUNTAINS (Document 10)

B. Locate and identify (as desert, mountain, etc.) the following features on the map:

Amu Darya Aral Sea Gobi Kizil Kum

Pamirs Syr Darya Taklamakan Tarim Basin Tianshan

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

Unit B

TRADITIONAL VS. MODERN USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES: THE CASE OF THE ARAL SEA

Essential Question: What impact has cotton cultivation had on modern Central Asia’s environment? UNIT 1 – B

Learning Experience: The dwindling of fresh water resources in many parts of the world will be an ever-increasing concern in the twenty-ﬁrst century. Even now, problems of water supply in the western and southwestern United States, the Middle East, China, and Central Asia1 trouble politicians and planners worldwide.

In this unit, students will learn how water resources along the Silk Road have been utilized in traditional and modern times. They will (1) study how pre-modern Central Asians supplied their oases with water using the karez system; (2) learn about the environmental and health problems caused by the Soviet Union’s establishment of cotton as the main crop in the Aral Sea region; and (3) investigate the relation of cotton growing to the destruction of the Aral Sea. Anticipatory Set: Where does the water you use to drink, cook, and wash with come from? How does the use of water in the U.S. differ from water use in developing societies? How does it differ from pre-modern societies? Context: Silk Road trade was supported by a network of cities and oasis towns (Color Map plus Map D and Map E). Since the region lacks the rainfall necessary to sustain agriculture, farmers in the past as well as today depend on irrigation. The traditional karez irrigation system (kar means “well” and ez means “underground” in the Uyghur language) was a major irrigation technique in this part of the world. By comparing the traditional karez system with modern, plantation-style irrigation around the Aral Sea, students will learn about the problems of water resource development in Central Asia.

What is an oasis? Oases are desert areas that possess water supplies able to support vegetation. The water normally comes from melted snow or rainfall in the nearby mountain ranges. The snowmelt and rain feeds underground springs that can sometimes be hundreds of miles away from the original source of water. Oasis towns and cities provided stopping places for Silk Road merchants and travelers to rest and conduct business.

The most readily available (and renewable) water resource along the Silk Roads is the run-off from melting snow in the mountains. The traditional karez system uses the force of gravity and underground channels to deliver this water to thirsty farmland (see Document 1, and Student Handout: The Karez Irrigation System, p. 81). This is a system of water control that is environmentally friendly and well-suited to grape farming in oases such as Turfan in Xinjiang province, China’s part of the Silk 1

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

Roads (Map D and Color Map). Turfan’s grapes and raisins have been famous for centuries. Although situated in a hostile desert and scrub environment, places like Turfan continue to thrive using the karez. The Aral Sea region, however, is one of the world’s great environmental disasters, a decline that was caused by modern industrial cotton cultivation, which used enormous amounts of water, not to mention tremendous quantities of pesticides. Under the Soviets, the area around the Aral Sea became a major cotton-growing region. By the 1960s, the diversion of river water for massive irrigated cotton plantations led to a drastic shrinking of the Aral Sea. For centuries, the sea and the two great rivers that fed into it, the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya,2 supported great cities such as Samarkand and Bukhara (in modern Uzbekistan), centers of Islamic learning.3 In modern times, the depletion of these bodies of water caused many areas to turn into desert.

UNIT 1 – B

Ground-Level Openings To The Vertical Shafts Used To Ventilate And Clean A Karez. Kirkuk, Iraq

(Source: Cressey 1957: 124) http://geography.ucdavis.edu/njrallan/class/geo10/slides/pages/Geo10-108_jpg.htm

Another negative environmental consequence was that soil productivity was sharply reduced due to salinization. Salinization is the increase of the salt content in soil. Water used in irrigation picks up salt from the soil that it passes through and then the salt is deposited in the soil around irrigated crops. High levels of salt prevent plants from absorbing water, so they are unable to nourish themselves. Changing this bleak situation will take a long time and require a lot of money. . . . the underlying causes of ecological decline in the area date back to inappropriate irrigation and land use during the Soviet Era. These are now being addressed by large-scale international, national and regional efforts, such as the Aral Sea Basin Programme, a joint project of the World Bank, United Nations Development Project (UNDP), United Nations Environment Project (UNEP), and Global Environment Facility (GEF). The collapse of the Soviet Union and the emergence of an independent Uzbekistan, however, have spawned a number of additional threats which must be countered if the global biodiversity value of the area is to be conserved. 2 3

“Darya” is Persian for river. See: http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/cities/cities.html.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

These new threats are principally related to the economic decline brought about by the difficult transition to a free market economy. Rural populations often overuse the remaining natural and semi-natural areas for grazing, fuel wood, hunting, and other purposes. Restricted government budgets have loosened state controls over resource use as well as undercut government ability to carry out conservation activities . . . Nonetheless, though the area sustained a high level of ecological damage in the past, including the degradation of the Aral Sea ecosystem and damage to the surrounding delta and deserts, the situation has begun to stabilize and major national, regional, and international efforts to redress the key causal factors have begun (http://www.wwf.ru/about/where_we_work/asia/tugai/eng). A Rusting Fishing Boat Lies Abandoned On What Used To Be The Shore Of The Aral Sea

UNIT 1 – B

(Source: OSCE photo archive)

Rationale: Comparison of traditional and modern methods of land use in Central Asia will aid students in understanding a worldwide problem, the clash between sustainable, environmentally friendly development, and development based on maximizing proﬁt. Students will make policy recommendations to the governments of the region. They will base their suggestions using documents about Central Asia, the Aral Sea, and the karez system.

Working in teams, students will apply their knowledge to ﬁnd solutions to complex environmental and economic problems. The teams will develop arguments, assess strategic options from a variety of points of view, and debate solutions in a debrieﬁng session. A review of the positions advocated by each team will reveal the priorities of the class with respect to environmental policy. Each team will appoint a spokesperson to present the recommendation to a “Central Asian Minister.” Using social studies skills as they relate to geography, students will assess why this is a region that demands international concern. Time: Two to three forty-minute periods. Instructional Resources:

•

Map D and Map E; Handout on the karez system (p. 81); two page printout: “Disappearance of the Aral Sea” from http://www.grida.no/aral/maps/aral.htm); Mission Statement (p. 75).

•

Documents 1-7: Resource materials for training as a policy advisor.

Some documents may be primary sources, and some may be secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

Procedure: The unit is based on a jigsaw format. Divide the class into groups. Since each group will “train” to ﬁll one of the roles detailed in the documents (karez keeper, agronomist, hydrologist, health worker, environmentalist, economist), every group member gets the same document to study. Students read their documents together and work through the content collectively. Every member of the group becomes an “expert” in one ﬁeld.

New groups are then formed, each consisting of experts in the various ﬁelds. After hearing each member’s point of view and taking various aspects of the issue into account, these teams frame a policy initiative. A spokesperson for each team makes one recommendation to a hypothetical “Central Asian Minister.” On brieﬁng day, give the teams ten minutes each to present their analysis and recommendation. UNIT

Whole Group Reflection: After reviewing all the recommendations, ask students to reﬂect on the effectiveness of each team. Were recommendations consistent with the priorities of each adviser? What values did each recommendation emphasize? What priorities would they like the minister’s government to adopt?

1 – B

The class will then discuss and debate all the proposals. In preparation for a ﬁnal proposal, they will make changes where necessary. Board notes will be made during this debrieﬁng session. Instructional Modification: Sources may be adapted or replaced to meet student reading levels, or to conform to the makeup of the cooperative discussion groups. Application: Students will reﬂect on the presentations. They will write an editorial to the “Uzbekistan Gazette,” detailing solutions to the region’s environmental problems. Student Handout:

Mission Statement: Making a Water Use Policy for Central Asia International Crisis: In many parts of Central Asia, there is a water use crisis. Your job is to assess the situation and make a recommendation for appropriate action. You will present your recommendation both orally and in writing. Keep in mind the many dimensions of the issue and incorporate them into your group proposal. Group Roles: • • • • • •

Karez keeper Agronomist Hydrologist Health worker Environmentalist Economist

Since your second group is composed of experts in different fields, each member is concerned with a different aspect of the problem. You must take into account all perspectives. At the end, however, you must present only one recommendation.

Oral Presentation: You will have ten minutes to present your recommendation to the Minister. You must make your argument in an organized and persuasive fashion. All members of the team should participate in the presentation.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

RESOURCES FOR STUDENT POLICY ADVISERS DOCUMENT 1: KAREZ KEEPER-THE KAREZ SYSTEM AND XINJIANG’S OASIS TOWNS

UNIT

The oasis towns that ﬂourish in the arid region along the Silk Roads depend on an ancient system of water distribution known as the karez. The word karez is from the Uyghur4 language: Kar means “well” and ez means “underground.” Depending on gravity, the karez consist of underground channels that bring water down from the melting snow in distant mountain ranges. Since the water ﬂows underground, it doesn’t evaporate in the ﬁerce heat of this desert region.

1 – B

Karez played an important role in the development of the Turpan Basin, particularly near the oasis towns of Hami and Turpan. The chief tools for digging the karez are simple: the hammer and the pickaxe. The main parts of the karez are (1) the subsurface tunnels that collect and transport water; (2) the openings at ground level that allow workers to maintain the channels—the most important job being to make sure the water ﬂow isn’t interrupted by the accumulation of ﬁne particles of earth, called silt, suspended in the water; (3) the ponds that collect the water just before it is channeled into the ﬁelds. Since more than ninety percent of the land in the western regions requires irrigation, without the karez, agriculture would be impossible. Karez are used to water wheat, corn, sorghum (a grain resistant to drought and heat), rice, melons, grapes, and sugar beets. Long-staple cotton, which thrives in an arid climate, is also grown in the Tarim Basin. This traditional system has existed in harmony with the environment for centuries. The earliest Chinese account of the karez dates to about 100 BCE.

China’s more than 8 million Uyghurs are a Turkic Muslim people. See Unit G: China’s Uyghurs—A Disaffected Muslim Minority.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 2: AGRONOMIST—THE ARAL SEA REGION In order to make the Aral Sea region a large-scale independent cotton producer, the Soviet Union promoted land reclamation to increase agricultural productivity. At the end of the 1960s, the U.S.S.R. also ordered the Central Asian Republics to increase water available for irrigation by taking it from the rivers, streams, and other sources that normally feed into the Aral Sea. New drainage and irrigation systems, dams, and water reservoirs were constructed throughout the Central Asian Republics. Land used to raise livestock and to grow traditional crops such as apricots, subtropical fruits, and wheat, was planted with cotton. In addition, thousands of tons of chemical fertilizers and pesticides were put into the cotton ﬁelds to promote high yields. UNIT

Since the breakup of the Soviet Union, much of this elaborate water delivery system has fallen into disrepair. Some aging irrigation and drainage canals waste more water than they deliver. In Soviet times, at least sixty dollars a year per acre was spent to maintain water systems. Uzbekistan currently spends less than twenty-ﬁve dollars an acre; Tajikistan spends four dollars.

1 – B

This arid region grew used to abundant water. Rice, a crop that requires large amounts of water, is grown in both Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan—poor management of a scarce resource. Cotton is also a hungry crop, demanding tremendous amounts of fertilizer. Soils must be rich in nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous as well as other nutrients. Cotton also requires large amounts of pesticide. In addition, hundreds of acres of once-productive farmland are now covered with a thin crust of salt: salt in the irrigation water leaches into the ﬁelds through unlined canals. Frequent dust storms blow salt off the now dry Aral Sea bed and deposit it in the ﬁelds. Between 1968 and 1985, sixty percent of the cropland in the Amu Darya delta was affected by salinity. Salt lessens the ability of plants to absorb moisture, and fertility is thus sharply decreased.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 3: HYDROLOGIST—THE ARAL SEA REGION Hydrology is a science concerned with the distribution of water. Hydrologists study how water flows, enters, and goes out of rivers, lakes, and dams.

In the 1960s, an extensive network of canals was built by the Soviets to irrigate millions of acres of cotton ﬁelds in the desert regions of Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan. Water was taken from the two rivers that ﬂowed into the Aral Sea, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya.

UNIT 1 – B

Although this massive irrigation network increased the amount of land available for agriculture, the environmental effects on the Aral Sea region have been disastrous. The ﬁve nations involved have drunk dry the natural ﬂow of two great rivers. Because collective farm workers frequently neglected to turn off the irrigation systems, some areas used up twice as much water as necessary to irrigate ﬁelds. The Aral Sea is a saline lake in the center of a large ﬂat desert basin. The Aral is a closed system in which water ﬂows into it mainly from the Syr Darya and Amu Darya, but no water ﬂows out. In 1960, it was the world’s fourth largest lake, as big as Southern California (26,250 square miles). Over the years, the huge amounts of water taken from the Aral Sea have caused it to shrink. In the past few decades, its volume has decreased by seventy-ﬁve percent, the equivalent of draining Lakes Erie and Ontario. Furthermore, its surface area has decreased by ﬁfty percent, the shoreline has receded up to seventy-ﬁve miles, and sea level has fallen by more than ﬁfty feet. Because of these changes, the waters of the Amu Darya no longer enter the Aral Sea but disappear in its former delta region. The Syr Darya dies off more than seventy-ﬁve miles from where it used to enter the sea. By 1988, the misuse of water resources caused almost nine million acres of agricultural land to be taken out of production. There is almost no ﬂow from the two rivers, and the soil in the region has become polluted with salt, pesticides, nitrates, and other chemical elements. The salinity of the water has increased. Indigenous ﬁsh species are threatened with extinction. Groundwater is polluted with fertilizer and pesticide run-off.

DOCUMENT 4: HEALTH WORKER—THE ARAL SEA REGION The shrinking of the Aral Sea has had an impact on human health. Billions of tons of poisonous salts cover millions of square acres of the Aral Sea bottom. Tens of millions of tons of salt and chemicals, including toxic pesticides, evaporate into the air from the Aral Sea and are spread over long distances by the wind. The soil of the region is also highly saline, the result of being irrigated with water that collects large amounts of salt on its journey down from the mountains. The Amu Darya and the Syr Darya are also polluted. Human exposure to toxic chemicals is inevitable, since chemicals sprayed on crops end up in the water and in locally grown produce and meat. In one region, the meat contains eight times the maximum permissible level of pesticides, and the fruits and vegetables contain sixteen times the permissible level. Many farm workers get cancer, anemia, dystrophy, allergies, and jaundice. Residents of some areas contract hepatitis and typhoid at signiﬁcantly higher rates than people in other regions. The mortality rate for children less than a year old is ninety-eight to one hundred per thousand. Also, many babies refuse to nurse because their mother’s milk is three to four times saltier than normal due to the high salt content of the water. As a result, malnutrition among infants is common. Anemia is also common in pregnant women. Lung and stomach diseases are also prevalent. In one region of Uzbekistan near the Aral Sea, seventy percent of its population of over a million are ill or have some chronic condition. There are towns where seventy percent of the people have pre-cancerous conditions. Many believe that these ailments are related to the region’s environmental problems. 78

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 5: ENVIRONMENTALIST: THE ARAL SEA REGION The craving for water has turned the Aral Sea into a shrunken brine lake. The destruction of this ecosystem began in the 1920s when Soviet planners, seeking products for export, emphasized the production of cotton. The pace accelerated in the 1950s, as irrigated agriculture was expanded and mechanized in Central Asia. From the mountainous Chinese border to the Caspian Sea, the Soviet Union built twenty thousand miles of canals, forty-ﬁve dams, and more than eighty reservoirs. The Karakum Canal, for instance, is an 837-mile man-made river diverting water into the Turkmenistan Desert. It feeds a vast irrigation network providing water for millions of acres of cotton. Desert dust and sand have been turned into one of the world’s great cotton-growing regions.

UNIT 1 – B

Beginning in the 1960s, the level of the Aral Sea began to drop. Depletion of the ﬂow of the two historic rivers—the Syr Darya and Amu Darya—brought rapid change in the Aral Sea and greatly altered the delta of the Amu Darya. By the early 1980s, the ﬂow of river water into the Aral had stopped completely. As the Aral shrank, its salinity level increased. By 1977, the commercial harvest of ﬁsh had declined by over seventy-ﬁve percent. Some species of ﬁsh unique to the Aral Sea are now extinct. Much agricultural land in the region has become too saline for most crops. Native vegetation is being crowded out by salt-tolerant species with little value as forage and fodder for domestic animals. The former seabed is now an environmental hazard. Thousands of tons of salt left behind as the water retreated are scoured off and blown hundreds of miles by ﬁerce winter winds. Winds also pick up millions of tons of sediment laced with the residues from pesticides and fertilizers. All of this is transported into rivers, lakes, and streams, as well as the Aral Sea, by runoff and faulty irrigation and drainage systems. Water pollution also limits the availability of drinking water. Eighty percent of the people of the Central Asian republics lack access to clean water. The degradation of the land has accelerated the natural process of desertiﬁcation. As the Aral Sea’s shoreline receded, wetlands have disappeared, and falling water tables have destroyed oases. The Amu Darya delta, a center of civilization in the age of the Silk Roads, is one of the endangered oasis environments. The Aral Sea is one of the greatest environmental catastrophes in human history. People have made use of its resources for thousands of years. They have also used the region’s land and soil for thousands of years. Has massive overuse (and misuse) in recent years brought this to an end?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 6: ECONOMIST—THE ARAL SEA REGION The development of an agricultural economy based almost solely on cotton has had wide-ranging negative effects. Cotton dominates society. Children and the elderly work in the ﬁelds. Traditional farming is abandoned.

UNIT 1 – B

The environmental costs of abandoning traditional farming for an economy based solely on cotton have not been offset by monetary beneﬁts. Earnings from cotton exports are used to buy wheat, dairy products, meat, and fruits. At one time, all of these were abundantly available. While the production of cotton continues to increase, the standard of living for the typical farm family does not. In rural areas, people’s diets contain only one eighth the amount of meat compared to national averages across the region. The once active Aral Sea ﬁshing industry has vanished. Fishing towns and ports that once dotted the coast are now many miles from water. The part of the sea that has evaporated covers more than ten thousand square miles, two-thirds of which is salty sand and dirt. The town of Muynak in Uzbekistan, once a bustling village surrounded by lush green vegetation, has been devastated. Located at the southern edge of the Aral Sea, Muynak once produced millions of pounds of ﬁsh. Now it is more than thirty miles from the coast, surrounded by salt ﬂats and arid land. The few remaining residents survive by raising chickens, pigs, and goats, and by tending household gardens. The thriving muskrat industry that once harvested half a million pelts a year has been gone for two decades. This followed the loss of the animals’ natural habitat to desertiﬁcation. The parts of the former seabed that are now dry land are strewn with the remains of ﬁshing trawlers and cargo vessels. In 1959, ﬁshing ﬂeets hauled close to 50,000 metric tons of ﬁsh, mostly carp, bream, pike, perch, roach, barbell and sturgeon. In 1994, a mere 5,000 metric tons of carp were taken from polluted lakes in the ruined deltas of the Amu and Syr Darya Rivers. The destruction of the ﬁshing industry resulted in sixty thousand people losing their livelihoods.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

Student Handout: The Karez Irrigation System

Karez are underground channels that bring water from highlands to lower levels solely through gravity. Karez require no pumps or other mechanical means to operate. They depend entirely upon the supply of groundwater. Building a Karez

The shaft at the far right is labeled “head well.” The horizontal tunnel at the bottom of the drawing is being dug toward it. The vertical shafts are sunk every sixty to ninety feet.

UNIT 1 – B

Suggested Questions for Players

UNIT 1 – C

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.

Approximately how long is the distance from Chang’an to Kashgar? Which three provinces in China did the Silk Roads pass through? Besides Buddhism and Islam, name one other religion practiced along the Silk Roads. What structure was built to protect China’s northern frontier from nomadic tribes? What did the Chinese government often use as currency? What do nomad peoples sometimes use as currency? Which oasis town is located in a depression? What two characteristics describe most Silk Roads products? Where are the Pamirs located? What do the members of a caravan typically eat and drink? About how many miles can a typical caravan cover in a day? Name two products that originate in Central Asia. Which city, located in the Wei River valley, was the capital of China during the Tang dynasty? Name two oases located in the Chinese province of Xinjiang? Which oasis town is a famous source of jade? How many humps does a dromedary have? Which oasis city is the lowest point in China and one of its hottest places? Name three important items needed most by caravan travelers. Why is the camel called the “the ship of the desert?” What type of camel has two humps? When would caravans mostly likely graze their camels? What is a “caravanserai’? What are the three main geographical features of the Silk Roads? What animal did the Chinese import for use in warfare? Name the underground system that brings water down to the oases in Xinjiang from the nearby mountains. What do silkworms eat? List three occupations that can be found in a caravan. What type of dwellings do Central Asian nomads live in? Name one way that nomads earn their living. List two local products of Xinjiang. What part of the silkworm is silk thread made from? What two religions entered China via the Silk Roads? What stretch of the Silk Roads is known as the “Trail of Bones”? What is the arrangement whereby a group of merchants invest in a caravan to share both proﬁts and losses? What was rhubarb, a plant widely traded along the Silk Roads, used for?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

Answers to Questions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Two thousand miles Shaanxi, Gansu, and Xinjiang Zoroastrianism, Nestorian Christianity or Manichaeism. The Great Wall Silk Livestock Turfan Luxurious and portable West of Kashgar Half-cooked dough and hot tea Fifteen to sixteen miles per day Jade, grapes, or melon Chang’an Kashgar, Khotan, Turfan Khotan One hump Turfan Food, fodder, and water Like a ship, it transports people across a hostile environment.

20. Bactrian camel 21. By day—to keep closer watch of them. 22. A way station or shelter built to provide for travelers along the Silk Roads 23. Mountains, deserts, and oases 24. Horses 25. Karez 26. Mulberry leaves 27. Merchants and/or their agents, armed guards, professional camel drivers, baggage handlers, camp tenders, guides are all occupations found on a caravan. 28. Portable tent-like structures called yurts 29. Raising livestock or raiding their neighbors 30. Melons, grapes, jade 31. Cocoons 32. Buddhism and Islam 33. The Pamirs 34. Ortogh (Mongol) or commenda (Arab) 35. Medicine

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 1. Geography Along The Silk Roads

UNIT 1 – C

2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads Unit D THE HAN, THE XIONGNU, AND CHINA’S TRADITIONAL FOREIGN RELATIONS Unit E THE SPREAD OF ISLAM (634-750 CE) Unit F CHINA UNDER MONGOL RULE: THE YUAN DYNASTY (1279-1368 CE)

Unit G CHINA’S UYGHURS—A DISAFFECTED MUSLIM MINORITY Unit H FROM TSARS TO COMMISSARS TO INDEPENDENCE: THE KAZAKHS AND THE RUSSIANS Unit I PERSIA AND THE EAST-WEST FLOW OF GOODS ON THE SILK ROAD

Unit D

THE HAN, THE XIONGNU, AND CHINA’S

UNIT 2 – D

TRADITIONAL FOREIGN RELATIONS

Essential Question: How did the Chinese and Xiongnu establish and maintain diplomatic relations during the Han dynasty and what impact did it have on both cultures? Learning Experience: Students will learn how China dealt with its northern nomadic neighbors during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE). Anticipatory Set: Students will deﬁne and become familiar with some basic terms that frame the topic of this unit: cultural conﬂict, tribute system, nomad, dynasty, frontier, and expansionism. Context: China’s traditional view of itself as the “Central Kingdom,” the source of all that was civilized, was a key factor in determining its pre-modern foreign policy. At the core of this world view was the tribute system.

Being a tributary state meant acknowledging subservience to China and its emperor, presenting token tribute gifts, and sending hostages to the Chinese court. In return for such symbolic gestures, steppe nomads and other foreigners received valuable goods such as silk, cash, gold jewelry, and ornaments, as well as the right to trade at frontier markets. Trading rights were extremely important since the nomads lacked the resources and craftspeople to produce the things they got from Chinese merchants—textiles, clothing, utensils, wine and other foodstuffs (Barﬁeld 1989: 59-60). China, for its part, valued the horses, cattle, and furs imported from the steppe. What was the historical context that gave birth to the tribute system? After China became a uniﬁed state under the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE), its borders gradually began to expand. Under the succeeding Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE), colonies were established in what is now northern Vietnam and northern Korea. There was also ongoing settlement in the southeast. The most critical area, however, was in the north and northwest (sees Map E and Color Map), where the Chinese established military garrisons and towns to defend against nomadic raids and invasions. This was because Xiongnu1 tribes were creating an extensive empire in what is today Mongolia at about the same time that China was becoming a uniﬁed empire under Qin and Han: The relationship between China and the nomads appears to have been of secondary importance to Chinese history until it exploded ... during the Qin-Han period. The emergence of the Xiongnu empire, in 209 BCE, struck the newly born Chinese empire with unprecedented strength, forcing upon it the realization that the north had become a major antagonist, politically, militarily, and culturally (Loewe 1999: 886-887). The ﬁrst hostilities between Xiongnu and Chinese took place in 201-200 BCE when Xiongnu forces surrounded the ﬁrst Han emperor and his army. It was only after extensive negotiations that the Xiongnu allowed the Chinese to escape. Formal relations were then established between the two 1

Although “xiong” might be the Chinese transliteration of a sound by which the Xiongnu referred to themselves, it also has the Chinese meaning of “savage” or “cruel.” “Nu” means “slave.” Many pre-modern Chinese names for non-Chinese peoples (so-called “barbarians”) had similar negative connotations.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

103

UNIT 2 – D

nations. China had to agree to make annual payments of silk and other commodities not normally available to the steppe people. The Han and the Xiongnu were to be regarded as equal states. Later on, the Xiongnu also demanded, and received, the right to trade with the Chinese at border markets. As long as the Xiongnu confederation was strong, “periods of war alternated with periods of peace in order to extract ever-increasing beneﬁts from China” (Barﬁeld 1989: 35-36, 51). Establishing the tribute system as a way of managing the northern tribes was one of the basic aims of Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE) of the Han dynasty. The system was to remain a central part of China’s foreign relations from Han times down to the Ming period (1368-1644 CE). Emperor Wu’s reign also saw China aggressively seeking allies and alliances in Central Asia to counter and destroy the Xiongnu. The fabled mission of Zhang Qian (undertaken between 139-126 BCE; see Document 4, below), sent west by Emperor Wu to seek allies and warhorses, was part of this. Zhang returned from the “Western Regions” with the ﬁrst direct news about these neighboring lands. The Chinese scored some victories against the nomads but, by the end of emperor Wu’s reign, were on the defensive. Furthermore, frontier warfare was enormously expensive. Critics of the government claimed that war with the steppe peoples would ultimately bankrupt the state. These policies were abandoned after the emperor’s death. The Xiongnu, however, also had political problems in the decades after emperor Wu’s death. In 54 BCE, as a result of internal political struggles and civil war, they ﬁnally accepted the Chinese tribute system. No steppe people ever really challenged it again (Barﬁeld 1989: 56, 57, 60, 61). It was not until China’s dealings with the European powers and Japan in modern times that the tribute system crumbled. By investigating the problems and issues involved from the perspective of both the Chinese and the Xiongnu, students will gain insight into a key issue in Chinese history: the clash between the sedentary, agrarian Chinese and the nomadic Xiongnu. Rationale: Students will assess the beneﬁts and risks on each side in the foreign policy game played by the Han court and the Xiongnu. They will use a map and other sources to (1) study the history of Han-Xiongnu relations; (2) evaluate why the Xiongnu needed to establish peaceful relations with the Han; (3) assess the impact of this relationship on both China and the Xiongnu. Time: Two forty-minute sessions. Instructional Resources: Fourteen resource documents, including a map of the Han empire (Map E). Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: Teachers will need to set up the context for this exercise by explaining the difference between the nomads and the Chinese and ask students to hypothesize potential sources of conﬂict.

1. Divide the class into pairs. Students will be asked to read the documents and answer the following basic questions. They must use evidence from the documents to support their answers. • • • •

104

What tactics did the Xiongnu employ to establish peaceful relations with the Han? How did the Han establish peaceful relations with the Xiongnu? What impact did Chinese-Xiongnu relations have on the Chinese? On different levels of Chinese society? What impact did Chinese-Xiongnu relations have on the Xiongnu?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

2. Have one member of each pair play the role of a Chinese official and one a Xiongnu official. The “officials” then write a dialogue that takes place between them, ﬁrst creating a scenario to set the scene. For example: The Xiongnu official has come to the Han capital to discuss ongoing skirmishes at the border. Students should use words from the documents. The teacher can provide these or the class can generate a list. The dialogue should include ten or ﬁfteen exchanges. Two or three pairs of students may read their completed dialogues to the class.

UNIT 2 – D

To synthesize the results, a three-column list can be made on the board: Column 1

Column 2

What did the Chinese want from the Xiongnu?

What did the Xiongnu want from the Chinese?

Column 3 What were the grounds— diplomatic, military, commercial, territorial, and so forth—for compromise between the Chinese and the Xiongnu?

3. Summary. Answer the essential question: How did the Chinese and Xiongnu establish and maintain diplomatic relations during the Han dynasty? Whole Group Reflection: In discussing Han-Xiongnu relations, the class should keep in mind the tremendous difference between Xiongnu and Chinese society—one nomadic and one agricultural. Are the differences so great that the two cultures can never have real peace? Can students think of other situations in history or everyday life where cultural differences result in conﬂict? Instructional Modifications: This lesson is geared to students who are reading at grade level and above. However, in order to reﬂect other learning styles, the following modiﬁcations are suggested:

• • •

Instead of pairs, groups of three or more can be formed mixing more advanced with less advanced students. Students can do parts of the unit as homework, depending on time constraints. Create questions for each document that ask students to recall speciﬁc information. Questions can also cover the reasons a document was written, descriptions of the authors (in the case of primary materials), and summaries of the main ideas.

Application: You are a Chinese official and have just met with a Xiongnu official. Write a letter to the Emperor and give him advice on how to establish relations with the Xiongnu. This can be done in class or as homework. Ornaments Like This Gold Belt Buckle Were Valued By Nomadic-Pastoral Peoples Such As The Xiongnu. Belt Buckle: Paired Felines Attacking Ibexes, Xiongnu type, 3rd-2nd Century. BCE. Mongolia or Southern Siberia Gold; 2 5/8 x 3 1/8 in. (6.7 x 7.9 cm) Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917 (17.190.1672) Metropolitan Museum of Art

(Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917 [17.190.1672] Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/04/nc/ho_17.190.1672.htm

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

105

DOCUMENT 1: THE NOMAD LIFESTYLE* UNIT

Farmers live on the land, stay on the land, and rarely go far from home. Nomadic peoples live off their animals. They move with the seasons, constantly in search of food and water for their herds. This difference in lifestyles sets the stage for more than fifteen hundred years of Chinese foreign policy, beginning with the struggle between China and the Xiongnu during the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE).

2 – D

. . . The animals they raise consist mainly of horses, cows, and sheep, but include such rare beasts as camels, asses, mules, and . . . wild horses . . . They move about in search of water and pasture and have no walled cities and ﬁxed dwellings, nor do they engage in any kind of agriculture. Their lands, however, are divided into regions under the control of various leaders. They have no writing, and even promises and agreements are only verbal. The little boys start out by learning to ride sheep and shoot birds and rats with a bow and arrow, and when they get a little older they shoot foxes and hares, which are used for food. Thus all the young men are able to use a bow and act as armed cavalry in time of war. It is their custom to herd their ﬂocks in times of peace and make their living by hunting, but in periods of crisis they take up arms and go off on plundering and marauding expeditions . . . If the battle is going well for them they will advance, but if not, they will retreat, for they do not consider it a disgrace to run away (Watson 1961: 154).

DOCUMENT 2: THE HE QIN POLICY After the first Han emperor narrowly escaped being captured by the Xiongnu in 200 BCE, peace was negotiated and a policy referred to as he qin was established—he means “harmonious” and qin means “to be near” (like a family member). It had four provisions:

1. The Chinese made ﬁxed annual payments of silk, wine, grain, and other foodstuffs to the Xiongnu. 2. The Han gave a princess in marriage to the Xiongnu.2 3. The Xiongnu and Han were ranked as co-equal states. 4. The Great Wall was the official boundary between the two states (Barﬁeld 1989: 46).

DOCUMENT 3: “THE FIVE BAITS” The Han government originally viewed the he qin policy of subsidies to and appeasem*nt of the Xiongnu as a way to avoid costly disruptions on the northern frontier. They also hoped that the gifts and subsidies could be used as an economic weapon to weaken and eventually destroy the Xiongnu. This strategy was referred to as “the Five Baits”:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

106

Elaborate clothes and carriages to corrupt their eyes; Fine food to corrupt their mouths; Music to corrupt their ears; Lofty buildings, granaries, and slaves to corrupt their stomachs; Gifts and favors for the Xiongnu who surrendered (Barﬁeld 1989: 51).

See Unit U on Wang Zhaojun

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 4: EMPEROR WU OF HAN’S FOREIGN POLICY UNIT

The Xiongnu formed the ﬁrst confederation of nomadic tribes in Inner Asia in the late third century BCE. The First Emperor of Qin sent 100,000 troops against them in 213 BCE. The early Han emperors tried conciliatory policies, wooing the Xiongnu leaders with generous gifts, including silk, rice, cash, and even imperial princesses as brides. Critics of these policies feared that they merely strengthened the enemy; and indeed, in 166 BCE, 140,000 horsem*n raided deep into China, reaching a point less than 100 miles from the capital

2 – D

Emperor Wu took the offensive. He sent 300,000 troops far into Xiongnu territory in 133 BCE. Subsequent expeditions, such as those in 124, 123, and 119 BCE, often involved over 100,000 men. . . . Emperor Wu turned his attention to Central Asia as well, in part to ﬁnd allies, in part to improve the supply of horses to the army. In 139 BCE, he sent one of his officials, Zhang Qian, west in search of allies to ﬁght against the Xiongnu. Captured and kept prisoner for ten years, Zhang eventually escaped and made his way to Bactria and Ferghana, returning in 126 BCE . . . In 101 BCE, after three years’ effort, a Chinese army made its way beyond the Pamir Mountains to defeat Ferghana, seize large numbers of its excellent horses, and gain recognition of Chinese overlordship (Ebrey 1996: 68, 69).

Places and Place Names Bactria is in modern northeast Afghanistan. Ferghana is located in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyztan. Pamirs Located mainly in Tajikistan. They form a hub from which five great mountain ranges, including the Himalayas, extend.

DOCUMENT 5: WHAT WAS THE TRIBUTE SYSTEM? Chinese armies could never permanently conquer nomad peoples such as the Xiongnu. Even if they won a major victory, the nomads could retreat beyond the reach of Chinese forces and regroup. Consequently, the northern borderlands were, at certain times in China’s history, a constant source of nomad raids and invasions. The most important method developed to deal with nomads was the tribute system. The tribute system was a part of Chinese foreign policy from Han times (c. 100 BCE) to the seventeenth century CE. A tribe or state that entered into the tribute system acknowledged the rule of the Chinese emperor. They presented tribute gifts and sent hostages to the Chinese court. In return, steppe nomads and other foreigners received valuable goods such as silk, cash, gold jewelry and ornaments, and the right to trade at frontier markets. Trading rights were extremely important since the nomads lacked the resources and craftspeople to produce the things they got from Chinese merchants—textiles, clothing, utensils, wine and other foodstuffs. China, for its part, valued the horses, cattle, and furs imported from the steppe.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

107

DOCUMENT 6: POEM BY A TRIBUTE PRINCESS* UNIT 2 – D

Xijun, the author, was a relative of Emperor Wu. Around 110 BCE she was married off to the ruler of a tribal kingdom in what is today China’s far northwest, Xinjiang province.

The Collapsible Frame of a Yurt

(Source: Cressey 1934: 258)

The “canvas hut” referred to is a yurt. Yurts were the traditional dwellings of steppe people. They were made of sheets of felt laid over a wooden framework. A yurt could be set up quickly, knocked down, and carried easily on a wagon or on camel back. This made yurts the ideal form of shelter for people who had to move their homes along with their herds and the seasons.

My family married me to a lost horizon, Sent me far away to the Wusun king’s strange land. A canvas hut is my mansion, of felt is its walls, Flesh for food, mare’s milk for drink. Longing ever for my homeland, my heart’s inner wound. I wish I were the brown goose going to its old home. (Translation by Anne Birrell; Mair 1994: 446)

DOCUMENT 7: SUPPORT FOR AN AGGRESSIVE FOREIGN POLICY* The Debate on Salt and Iron records a discussion held at the Chinese court in 81 CE. It took place after the death of Emperor Wu, the ruler who had tried for decades to destroy the Xiongnu. In this passage a high official advocates the use of tax revenues to support border defense.

. . . the Xiongnu have frequently revolted against our sovereignty and pillaged our borders. If we are to defend ourselves, then it means the hardships of war for the soldiers of China, but if we do not defend ourselves properly, then their incursions cannot be stopped. The former emperor [Wu] took pity upon the people of the border areas who for so long had suffered disaster and hardship and had been carried off as captives. Therefore he set up defense stations, established a system of warning beacons, and garrisoned the outlying areas to ensure their protection. But the resources of these areas were insufficient, and so he established the salt, iron, and liquor monopolies . . . in order to raise more funds for expenditures at the borders. Now our critics, who desire that these measures be abolished, would empty the treasuries and deplete the funds used for defense. They would have the men who are defending our passes and patrolling our walls suffer hunger and cold (de Bary 1999: 361). 108

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 8: OPPOSITION TO THE FRONTIER POLICY* UNIT

. . . warfare prolonged over a long period often gives rise to rebellion, and the burden of military service is apt to lead to disaffection, for the people along the border are subject to great strain and hardship until they think of only breaking away, while the generals and officers only grow suspicious of each other and begin to bargain with the enemy (Barﬁeld 1989: 57).

2 – D

DOCUMENT 9: A HAN DYNASTY BALLAD—AT FIFTEEN I JOINED THE ARMY * The commoners who served in the Han armies suffered and died while fighting on the frontier. Han ballads such as At Fifteen I Joined the Army tell of their grief. Popular songs and ballads of the Han do not glorify war, nor do they celebrate national victories. It is ironic that they sprang from the great age of Chinese imperialism, when Han armies pushed the frontiers eastwards far into Korea, north into the steppes, west to Central Asia, and south into Vietnam (Birrell 1995: 116).

At Fifteen I Joined the Army At ﬁfteen I joined the army, At eighty I ﬁrst came home. On the road I met a villager, “At my home, what kin are there?” “Look over there—that’s your home!” Pine, cypress, burial mounds piled, piled high, Hares going in through dog-holes, Pheasants ﬂying in through rafter tops; The inner garden grown wild with weeds, Over the well wild mallow growing. I pound grain to serve for a meal, I pick mallow to serve for broth. Once broth and meal are cooked I’m at a loss to know whom to feed. I leave by the gates, look east. Tears fall and soak my clothes. (Translation by Anne Birrell; Birrell 1993: 125)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

109

DOCUMENT 10: INCREASE IN THE VALUE OF GIFTS TO THE XIONGNU UNIT

The Chinese were never able to destroy the Xiongnu state.

2 – D

Having obtained a peace treaty with the Xiongnu by offering aid and trade as part of the tributary system, the Han court constantly worried that offending the Xiongnu might provoke an extensive and unwarranted frontier war. By examining just the official allocations of silk made to successive tributary missions it is clear that the longer the peace lasted the more expensive it became, with a steady increase in the value of gifts allotted to each Shanyu who visited the Han court: Year of visit:

Silk floss:3

Silk fabric:

51 BCE

6,000 jin

8,000

9,000

16,000

20,000

30,000

. . . The Xiongnu, not the Han court, requested these visits and, far from being welcomed, the Han dreaded them because of their vast expense to the state . . . (Barﬁeld 1989: 65).

DOCUMENT 11: XIONGNU FOREIGN POLICY The Xiongnu state owed its continued existence to its effectiveness in dealing with China in war and peace. The number of nomads was small, perhaps about a million people, yet they confronted a Han state that ruled over 54 million people. Therefore they had to be organized in a way that compelled the Han court to recognize their interests. The Shanyu [the Xiongnu chieftain] had to inﬂuence decision-making at the highest levels of Han government because frontier policy was made at court, and not by frontier governors or border officials. To this end the Xiongnu devised a predatory strategy of extortion aimed at impressing the Han court with their power. Their “outer frontier” strategy took full advantage of the nomads’ ability to suddenly strike deep into China and then retreat before the Chinese had time to retaliate. It had three major elements: violent raiding to terrify the Han court, the alternation of war and peace to increase the amount of subsidies and trade privileges granted by the Chinese; and the deliberate refusal to occupy Chinese land even after great victories. The Xiongnu were not naturally violent, but they did cultivate violence as a tactic in dealing with the Chinese. The Han court could never ignore the Xiongnu or their demands, and they were obliged to treat the Shanyu as a ruler equal to the Han emperor, a status granted no other foreign ruler (Barﬁeld 1989: 49-50).

3 4

110

“Floss” is the silk as it’s reeled off the silkworm’s cocoon, before being twisted into thread. This measure of weight is called a “catty” in English. Today it equals about one pound.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 12: A WARNING TO THE XIONGNU* UNIT

A Chinese official who defected to the Xiongnu urges them not to become attracted to Chinese goods.

2 – D

All the multitudes of the Xiongnu would not amount to one province in the Han Empire. The strength of the Xiongnu lies in the very fact that their food and clothing are different from those of the Chinese, and they are therefore not dependent on the Han for anything. Now the Shanyu has this desire for Chinese things and is trying to change the Xiongnu customs. Thus, although the Han sends no more than a ﬁfth of its goods here, it will in the end succeed in winning over the whole Xiongnu nation. From now on, when you get any of the Han silks, put them on and try riding your horses through brush and brambles! In no time your leggings will be torn to shreds and everyone will see that silks are no match for the utility and excellence of felt and leather garments. Likewise when you get any of the Han foodstuffs, throw them away so that people can see that they are not as practical or tasty as milk and kumiss! [fermented mare’s milk] (Watson 1961: 170-171).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

111

Unit E

THE SPREAD OF ISLAM (634-750 CE)

Essential Question: How did Islam spread outside the Arabian peninsula?

UNIT

Learning Experience: Students will learn about the spread of Islam in the context of the geography and history of West Asia in the seventh and eighth centuries CE.

2 – E

Anticipatory Set: By the mid-eighth century CE, Islam had become the dominant power from North Africa to the borders of India. This unit discusses some of the factors that took the Arabs from a loosely connected group of nomadic tribes to a force that came to replace great empires. Context: The spread of Islam from Arabia to the rest of the Middle East and beyond is one of the great military and political achievements of the ancient world. The story begins with the Hijra (Arabic for “Migration”) in 622 CE, when Muhammad (c. 570-632) and his followers went from Mecca to Medina to escape powerful enemies and forge new alliances. Some time before the migration, God had given Muhammad permission to ﬁght against those who oppress others on account of their faith:

Permission is granted those who (take up arms) to ﬁght because they are oppressed. God is certainly able to give help to those who were driven away unjustly from their homes for no other reason than that they said “Our Lord is God” (Qur’an 22: 39; Peters 1994: 71). The battles fought against Arab rivals during the last decade or so of the Prophet’s life were extremely important for the future Islamic empire. They are the beginnings of a process that transformed tribal raiding parties into disciplined armies led by Muhammad’s immediate successors.

Chronological Table: The Early Arab Conquests

112

•

634 Battle of Ajnadayn. Arabs defeat a Byzantine army east of Gaza. The first time Arab forces come together as an army rather than as raiding parties seeking plunder.

•

636 A Byzantine army is defeated by the Arabs at the Battle of Yarmuk, ending centuries of Roman rule in Syria.

•

637 Battle of Qadisiya. Beginning of the destruction of the Sasanian empire (224-651). The Arabs take the imperial capital.

•

641-643 Conquest of the Byzantine province of Egypt.

•

642 Battle of Nehavand seals the fate of the Sasanian empire. With the death of the last Sasanian emperor in 651, the conquest of Iran is completed.

•

643 Arabs take Tripoli. This begins the conquest of North Africa.

•

660/668/717 Three failed expeditions to conquer the Byzantine capital of Constantinople.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

•

661 Establishment of the Umayyad caliphate (661-750). The Umayyads move the empire’s capital from Medina to Damascus.

•

711 Conquest of North Africa completed.

•

711-759 Spain taken by Muslim armies.

•

712-713 Transoxiana (modern Uzbekistan) in Central Asia falls to Muslim armies.

•

732 Muslim advance into Europe stopped by Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers.

•

750 Establishment of the Abbasid caliphate (750-1258). The empire’s capital is moved to Baghdad. The Islamic empire now stretches from Spain to Central Asia.

•

751 A Tang army is defeated by the Arabs at the Battle of the Talas River. Chinese control over Central Asia is now a thing of the past.

UNIT 2 – E

Muhammad never united all the Arabian tribes, nor did he choose a successor. Consequently, a group of the Prophet’s oldest and closest followers created the office of Caliph (“Successor to the Prophet”) after his death. This ensured the survival of the Muslim religious community. Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, was the ﬁrst Caliph. The Caliphate had . . . come into existence by “the consensus of the men around Muhammad,” and the Caliph was, in fact, the chief executive of the umma [the Muslim religious community]. He decided military strategy and was commander of the armies of Islam. He was the chief justice and principal ﬁscal officer of the new regime (Peters 1994: 121). After Muhammad’s death, many Arab tribes sought to free themselves from Muslim control. In dealing with them by force, Abu Bakr not only extended the power of Islam in Arabia, but also created a military that was the foundation of the early Muslim conquests: What began as large-scale intertribal skirmishing to consolidate a political confederation in Arabia ended as a full-scale war against the two empires [the Byzantine empire and Sasanid Iran] (Lapidus 1988: 39). In 634, an Arab army defeated a Byzantine army at the Battle of Ajnadayn: This was the ﬁrst battle in which the Arabs acted as an army rather than as separate raiding parties. With this victory their ambitions became boundless; they were no longer raiders on the soil of Syria seeking booty, but contenders for the control of the settled empires (Lapidus 1988: 39). This was the beginning of the Islamicization of the Middle East and Iran: The conquests began the long historical process that culminated in the absorption of both the Sasanian empire and the eastern regions of the Byzantine empire into an Islamic empire, and the eventual conversion of the majority of Jewish, Christian, and Zoroastrian1 peoples to Islam (Lapidus 1988: 37).

See p. 32 for Zoroastrianism, the state religion of pre-Islamic Iran.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

113

The power of the ﬁrst four caliphs was a result of their close association with the Prophet. The last of these—Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law—was assassinated in 661 CE. Subsequently, a political rival founded the Umayyad caliphate (661-750). The Umayyads ruled territory stretching from Spain to the Indus River.

The Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) and the “Golden Age” of Islam The Abbasid caliphate is often referred to as Islam’s “Golden Age.” The Abbasids encouraged patronage of literature, as well as the translation of numerous Persian and Indian texts into Arabic. UNIT 2 – E

Muslim scientists contributed to knowledge about astronomy, mathematics, medicine, chemistry, zoology, and other fields. Art and architecture also flourished, with craftsmen deriving inspiration from Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and Sasanian sources. Greek philosophy had a tremendous influence on Muslim thinkers. Islam preserved many aspects of the Western classical tradition that had disappeared in Europe with the fall of the Roman Empire: To think of medieval Europe . . . it would be impossible to predict the direction the Renaissance would have taken without the translations of the scientific and philosophical texts from Arabic . . . Without this decisive contact with Arabic texts, Europe, and by extension, the rest of modern civilization, would have been quite different from what they came to be (Saliba 1997: 51).

The Islamic conquests were not simply religious in nature, they were important economically for the reunited Arab tribes, which not only realized enormous wealth from them in the form of booty but also soon began to migrate into the new lands as administrators, military garrisons, and settlers (Denny 1994: 84). As long as they paid tribute, the peoples of the Middle East were allowed to remain Jews, Christians, or Zoroastrians: “The Arabs had little missionary zeal” (Lapidus 1988: 43).

The Words “Islam” and “Muslim” “Islam” is Arabic for surrender or submission. A Muslim is “one who has surrendered” to God (Denny 1994: 390, 392).

Rationale: The rise of Islam is a mixture of politics and religion. Understanding this history will help students understand the role of Islam in the contemporary world. Time: One class session. Instructional Resources: Large area map for classroom reference. Each student receives the documents, and three maps—“Central and Southwest Asia” (Map F) “The Middle East on the Eve of the

114

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Muslim Era” (Map H),2 and “The Arab-Muslim Empire to CE 750” (Map I). Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: Before the lesson, students should read about the spread of Islam from an appropriate textbook.3

•

First Day: The class is divided into groups, ideally with no more than ﬁve students in each group. The documents are to be divided as follows: UNIT

Each group will study the assigned documents and maps. They will then answer, in writing, the quesGroup: Documents:

I 1

II 2

III 4

IV 6

2 – E

V 8

tions relating to their documents. Students in each group may (1) write by themselves, coordinate their answers, and prepare one written piece, or (2) discuss the documents and then write together. In any case, there should be one written set of answers from each group and every group member should have a copy of it. •

Second Day: The class will be divided into ﬁve new groups. Each new group will have a member from each of the previous groups in it. Each group member will explain his group’s answer to the question. Then, each second group will answer the essential question: How did Islam spread outside the Arabian peninsula? This process should take ﬁfteen to twenty minutes.

Whole Group Reflection: How do empires begin and grow? Is the history of Islam different from that of other empires? Instructional Modifications:

•

Instead of dividing the class into groups, students can work on their own. They may do all the documents or ones selected by the teacher. Alternately, more documents can be assigned to fewer groups.

•

In order to include those with varying abilities, the teacher will divide students into groups. Group leaders will be appointed to assist in integrating the other students into the group. The teacher will select the ﬁnal writer in advance.

•

A supplementary web quest: “The Middle East Before the Arab Conquests.” Using the internet, students research the history and achievements of the Byzantine and Sasanian empires. (See information box, p. 125.)

Application: How does the history of Islam compare to the spread of other universal faiths, such as Christianity and Buddhism?

2 3

Students can ignore the Ghassanids (a tribal confederation) and the Lakhmids (a kingdom), sandwiched between Arabia and the Sasanian empire. Such as the section on the spread of Islam from World History—Connections to Today. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999, pp. 260-266.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

115

DOCUMENT 1: THE ARABS BEFORE ISLAM

UNIT 2 – E

The old Arabian way of life was highly conservative, with change coming rarely . . . The Arab pastoralist’s main means of livelihood was raising camels and sheep, hunting, occasionally serving as bodyguards or escorts to caravans, or being hired out as mercenaries in such fringe areas as the Syrian and Iraqi frontiers . . . Another means of gaining goods, if not great wealth, was by raiding. This was done among Bedouin groups as well as between them and sedentary peoples . . . Only by attacking settled peoples, who produce the goods of this life, could the Bedouin signiﬁcantly add to their meager possessions. The raiders particularly hoped to capture camels, horses, slaves [both male and female], gold, ﬁne fabrics, and other luxury items but often had to settle for much less. The raid . . . was more than a means of adding to the clan’s or tribe’s store of goods; it was . . . a “sort of national sport,” with wellunderstood rules that included refraining from bloodshed if at all possible (Denny 1994: 45-46).

1. Before 660 CE, how did most Arabs earn a living?

2. What was the economic purpose of the traditional practice of raiding?

3. What skills would make tribal nomads like the Arabs good at staging raids?

116

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 2: WARFARE AND RELIGIOUS DOCTRINE* The spread of Islam from Arabia to the rest of the Middle East and beyond is one of the great military and political achievements of the ancient world. The story begins with the Hijra (“Migration”) in 622 CE, when Muhammad and his followers went from Mecca to Medina to escape powerful enemies and forge new alliances. Some time before the migration, God had given Muhammad permission to ﬁght against those who oppress others on account of their faith: Permission is granted those who (take up arms) to ﬁght because they are oppressed. God is certainly able to give help to those who were driven unjustly away from their homes for no other reason than that they said “Our Lord is God” (Qur’an 22: 39; Peters 1994: 71).

UNIT 2 – E

1. Why did Muhammad and his followers go from Mecca to Medina? How did the Muslims justify fighting?

The Persian Text Above The Picture (below) Tells Of The Prophet Muhammad Advancing To Meet The Enemy In A Famous Battle

(Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Cora Timken Burnett Collection of Persian Miniatures and Other Persian Art Objects, Bequest of Cora Timken Burnett, 1956 [57.51.9] Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isla/ho_57.51.9.htm

Journey of the Prophet Muhammad; Leaf from a Copy of the Majmac al-tawarikh (Compendium of Histories), ca. 1425; Timurid, Herat, Afghanistan Colors, Silver, and Gilt on Brownish Paper; 16 7/8 x 13 in. (42.8 x 33 cm) Cora Timken Burnett Collection of Persian Miniatures and Other Persian Art Objects, Bequest of Cora Timken Burnett, 1956 (57.51.9) Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

117

DOCUMENT 3: A MAP OF THE MIDDLE EAST ON THE EVE OF THE MUSLIM ERA (MAP H) To answer these questions, you will also need a copy of the Map of Central and Southwest Asia (Map F).

This map shows how the Middle East was divided politically between two great empires. To interpret it and answer the questions, you ﬁrst need to carefully look at the key in the lower left-hand corner.

UNIT

1. What two great empires ruled over most of this region?

2 – E

2. Was Arabia, the birthplace of Islam, part of either of these empires?

3. What modern countries were once parts of the Byzantine Empire?

4. What modern countries were once parts of the Sasanian empire?

118

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 4: WARFARE AND RELIGIOUS DOCTRINE* There are three basic reasons why the Arab-Muslim armies were able to rapidly conquer Byzantine territories in the Middle East, as well as the whole of the Sasanian empire: 1. Wars between Byzantium and the Sasanians had weakened both sides. 2. Even before the Arab invasions, both empires had to ﬁght nomad invasions. The Sasanians faced the Huns and other northern steppe peoples. The Byzantines fought Germanic tribes in Italy and the Balkans. UNIT

3. The large Christian populations of Egypt, Syria, and Iraq were deeply dissatisﬁed with Byzantine and Sasanian rule. For instance, although the Byzantine empire was Christian, its doctrines differed from those of Egyptian Christians. The Byzantine rulers treated Egyptian Christians as heretics. In general, Muslims didn’t interfere with the beliefs of conquered peoples.

2 – E

Contemporary Christian writers saw the conquests as a plague. Arab chronicles, however, had a different view. In his History, one of the most important works on early Islam, al-Tabari (c. 839-923) records the words of an Arab commander to a Persian general: God has sent us and has brought us here so that we may release those who so desire from servitude to people [here on earth] and make them servants of God; that we may transform their poverty in this world into wealth . . . and bestow on them the justice of Islam. He has sent us to bring His religion to His creatures and to call them to Islam (Adapted from alTabari 1992: 12. 67).

1. True or False: The Arabs were the only enemies the Byzantines and the Sasanians had to face. 2. True or False: Religious tolerance was practiced in the Byzantine empire. 3. According to the Arab commander, what is Islam’s attitude toward earthly rulers?

Vocabulary Heretic: Someone whose religious beliefs differ from those of an accepted religion. Servitude: The condition of being forced to work for others.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

119

DOCUMENT 5: THE CALIPHS

UNIT 2 – E

Muhammad died in 632. His role as leader of the Muslim community, although not his unique prophetic role, was assumed by a succession of four Caliphs (“Caliph” is from the Arabic word khalifa, meaning “successor”), chosen from among his former companions, under whose direction the Arabs extended their conquests to include the eastern provinces of the Byzantine empire and the greater part of the Sasanid empire . . . The last of the ﬁrst four caliphs was the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, Ali (656-661). Following his assassination, a political opponent . . . established the dynasty of the Umayyad caliphs. Distantly related to the prophet, the Umayyads transferred the capital of the expanding Arab empire from Medina to Damascus . . . The Umayyads ruled from 661 to 750 and extended the frontiers of the Islamic world from Spain to the Indus River (Adapted from Farmer 1986: 229).

1. How was leadership chosen after Muhammad’s death?

2. Who was responsible for the eventual spread of Islam?

3. How far did the Umayyads extend the Islamic empire?

DOCUMENT 6: A MAP OF THE ARAB-MUSLIM EMPIRE TO CE 750 (MAP I) To answer these questions, you will also need a copy of Map F, Central and Southwest Asia.

This map shows the spread of Islam up to 750 CE. To interpret it and answer the questions, you ﬁrst need to look carefully at the key in the lower left-hand corner.

1. Which of the empires from the map in Document 3 survived the Muslim conquests? What modern countries were once parts of this?

2. Roughly speaking, what rivers formed the boundaries of the Arab-Muslim empire? 3. By what date had the Muslim empire conquered most of its territory? 4. Between 660 and 750 what regions had been conquered? Name the modern countries.

120

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 7: BAGHDAD AND THE ISLAMIC EMPIRE The successor to the Umayyads was the Abbasid caliphate (750-1258). Early in their reign, the Abbasids built a new capital called Baghdad.

Never had there been a Middle Eastern city so large. Baghdad was not a single city, but a metropolitan center, made up of a conglomeration of districts on both sides of the Tigris River. In the ninth century it measured about 25 square miles, and had a population of between 300,000 and 500,000 . . . Baghdad was larger than Constantinople [capital of the Byzantine empire], which is estimated to have had a population of 200,000, and larger than any other Middle Eastern city until Istanbul in the sixteenth century. In its time, Baghdad was the largest city in the world outside of China.

UNIT 2 – E

. . . As a capital city it was the center of economic opportunity. Baghdad grew into a great city of international trade and of immensely productive textile, leather, paper, and other industries. Most important in Middle Eastern history, however, was the cosmopolitan character of its population. Jews, Christians, and Muslims, as well as secret pagans, Persians, Iraqis, Arabs, Syrians, and Central Asians made up its populace . . . Baghdad, then, was the product of the upheavals, population movements, economic changes, and conversions of the preceding century; the home of a new Middle Eastern society . . . under the auspices of the Arab Empire and the Islamic religion (Lapidus 1988: 69-70).

1. For what reasons might you travel to Baghdad? 2. Using the web or a world atlas, find a modern city with roughly Baghdad’s population.

The Id Kah Mosque In The City Of Kashi (Xinjiang Province, China) Dates Back To The Fifteenth Century

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Marleen Kassel, 2001, Xinjiang)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

121

DOCUMENT 8: CONVERSION TO ISLAM Throughout the regions that the Islamic governments came to rule, many of the indigenous peoples gradually converted to the new religion. But this process was slow, and there were always signiﬁcant groups that retained their traditional faiths. But Islam eventually became the majority religion, and the Muslim governments were fairly tolerant, though condescending toward Christians and Jews (Denny 1994: 85).

UNIT 2 – E

. . . Arab-Muslims did not, contrary to reputation, attempt to convert people to Islam. Muhammad had set the precedent of permitting Jews and Christians in Arabia to keep their religions, if they paid tribute; the Caliphate extended the same privilege to Middle Eastern Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians . . . The Arabs had little missionary zeal (Lapidus 1988: 43). The question of why people convert to Islam has always generated intense feeling. Earlier generations of European scholars believed that conversions to Islam were made at the point of the sword and that conquered peoples were given the choice of conversion or death. It is now apparent that conversion by force, while not unknown in Muslim countries was, in fact, rare. Muslim conquerors ordinarily wished to dominate rather than convert, and most conversions to Islam were voluntary (Lapidus 1988: 243244).

1. What was Muhammad’s attitude toward non-Muslim religions?

2. What did early European scholars believe about conversion to Islam? Were they correct?

122

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 9: ISLAM AND THE IRANIAN HERITAGE The Great Arch of the Sasanian Place at Ctesiphon (3rd Century CE), Twenty Miles South of Modern Baghdad, Iraq).

UNIT 2 – E

(Source: Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative, ECAI) http://ecai.org/sasanianweb/sites/Ctesiphon0021.html

At its height, the Sasanian empire included Iraq, Iran, And parts of Central Asia. In 642 the Arabs defeated the Sasanians at the Battle of Nehavand. With the death of the last Sasanian emperor in 651, the Islamic conquest of Iran was completed. The Sasanian empire (224-651 CE) was one of the most powerful and belligerent regimes ever to control the Iranian plateau and eastern part of the Fertile Crescent (Farmer 1986: 180). The heritage of Sasanian Iran that was transmitted to the Arabs was enormous, for the Arabs conquered the entire Sasanian empire, whereas they took possession of only outlying provinces of the Byzantine empire. A complete model of imperial rule was thus presented to the Arabs by the Persian realm, and the Arabs borrowed from Sasanian Iran more than from any other source (Frye 1963: 7). By the mid-eighth century the Islamic empire constituted the dominant power system across the arid zone from the Atlantic to the frontiers of India (Denny 1994: 93).

1. Which empire, Byzantine or Sasanian, had the greater influence on the Arabs? 2. Which part of the Byzantine empire successfully resisted the Arab armies?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

123

DOCUMENT 10: AN IRANIAN MESSENGER GOES TO CHINA* This interview supposedly took place in 643 CE. It is recorded in the History of al-Tabari (c. 839-923).

Fleeing from Arab armies, the last Sasanian emperor sends a messenger to the emperor of China. That emperor was the second ruler of the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE), Xuanzong (r. 627-649 CE), considered one of the greatest monarchs in Chinese history. A messenger from the last Sasanian emperor went to China and sought help from the emperor. The Chinese emperor spoke to the messenger as follows: UNIT 2 – E

“I know that in truth rulers must give aid to other rulers against those who overthrow them. So describe these people who drove you out of your land. I notice that you mention that they are few and you are many. Such a small number shouldn’t affect you in this way, with your great numbers. They can do this only if they are good and you are evil.” The Iranian messenger suggests the emperor ask him any question he wishes to ask. Emperor: “Do [the Arabs] keep their agreements?” Messenger: “They do.” Emperor: “What do they say before they make war on you?” Messenger: “They call upon us to choose one of three things: To accept their religion—if we do, we will be treated as equals; to pay tribute to them, and make the Arabs our protectors. If we don’t choose these two, then the third thing is to be prepared for combat.” Emperor: “What do they order people to do and not to do?” The messenger tells him. Emperor: “Do they themselves do the things they order others not to do?” Messenger: “No, they do not.” The messenger then tells the emperor about the clothing, camels, and horses of the Arabs. Emperor: “If these people you describe to me were to try, they could destroy mountains. If nothing were to stand in their way, they would wipe me out! Make your peace with them and try to get along” (Adapted from al-Tabari 1994: 14. 61-62).

1. Why does the emperor think the Arabs can destroy mountains and wipe him out?

124

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Webquest: The Middle East Before the Arab Conquests What was the Middle East like before the Arab conquests in the seventh and eighth centuries CE? Using the Internet, students research the history and achievements of the Byzantine and Sasanian empires.

Some suggested web sources: Byzantine Empire UNIT

http://campus.northpark.edu/history/WebChron/EastEurope/Byzantium.html

2 – E

http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Byzantium/byzhome.html http://crusades.boisestate.edu/Byzantium/ Sasanian Empire http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/ http://www.bartleby.com/67/271.html http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/westasia/history/history.htm

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

125

Unit F

CHINA UNDER MONGOL RULE: THE YUAN DYNASTY (1279-1368 CE)

Learning Experience: This unit investigates why the Mongols can be considered the greatest conquerors in world history. Students will look at how the Mongol conquests changed the Eurasian world, and discuss how Khubilai Khan (1215-1294) and his advisors ruled one of the greatest prizes won by Mongol armies: China. Anticipatory Set: What is important about the Mongols as world conquerors? How are they similar to (and different from) other states and peoples—including modern ones—that established empires?

UNIT

Context: Chinggis Khan (1167-1227) ﬁrst united the tribes of Mongolia in the early thirteenth century. By the late 1200s, the Mongols ruled an empire stretching from China and Korea in the east to the Persian Gulf and the Black Sea in the west (see Map J).

2 – F

Although their conquests were based on great organizational and military skill, equally important was their ability to use non-Mongol peoples to conquer and govern their huge domains. The employment of foreigners Though their empire lasted less than a century, it inextricably linked Europe to Asia, ushering in an era of frequent and extended contacts between East and West . . . They expedited and encouraged travel in the sizable section of Asia that was under Mongol rule, permitting European merchants, craftsmen, and envoys, for the ﬁrst time, to journey as far as China. Asian goods reached Europe along the caravan trails, and the ensuing European demand for these products eventually inspired the search for a sea route to Asia (Rossabi 1988: 1).

Chronological Table: The Background to Mongol Rule in China

126

•

During the tenth and eleventh centuries, three non-Chinese states rose in north Asia. They were established by the Khitan (a Mongolian people), the Tangut (a Tibetan people), and the Jurchen (from Manchuria). The Jurchens adopted Chinese-style bureaucratic government when they conquered north China in 1126.

•

960-1127—NORTHERN SONG DYNASTY (CHINA) Song China was wealthy and culturally flourishing, but not expansionist. Its strong non-Chinese neighbors prevented that.

•

1115 The Khitan state was conquered by the Jurchen.

•

1126 The Jurchens overthrew Northern Song and took north China. The Song court fled south and established its rule south of the Yangzi River-the Southern Song Dynasty.

•

1127-1279—SOUTHERN SONG DYNASTY (CHINA) The Chinese not only paid tribute to the Jurchen, but also maintained a million man army to oppose them.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

•

c. 1162-1227 Chinggis Khan. In the early thirteenth century he united the Mongol tribes and laid the foundations for the largest empire in world history.

•

1231 Mongol invasion of Korea.

•

1234 The Mongols destroyed the Jurchen state and occupied north China.

•

1259 Koreans finally surrender to the Mongols.

•

1271 Khubilai Khan, Chinggis’ grandson, became emperor in north China and adopted the dynastic name Yuan.

•

By the late 1200s, the Mongols ruled all Eurasia from central Europe to the Pacific. This empire was divided among Chinggis’ four sons.

•

1274 Failure of first Mongol invasion of Japan.

•

1279 After years of fighting, the Mongols finally defeated the Southern Song dynasty. Since South China is covered with rivers, lakes, and wetlands, the Mongols had to build a navy. They employed foreign experts to run it, as well as conduct siege warfare against Chinese cities.

UNIT 2 – F

•

1279-1368—YUAN DYNASTY For the first time since the Tang dynasty (618-907), China was a geographic whole under Mongol rule. By the mid-thirteenth century, excessive taxation, inflation, famine, and natural disasters sparked rebellion against the Mongols. Ultimately, one of the rebel movements expelled the Mongols and founded the succeeding Ming dynasty (1368-1644).

•

1281 Failure of second Mongol invasion of Japan.

•

After the conquest of south China in 1279, Khubilai set his sights on Southeast Asia. During the 1280s, expeditions were launched against what is now Vietnam, Myanmar, and the island of Java in modern-day Indonesia. These efforts ended in defeat.

In China, the Mongols chose the dynastic name “Yuan.” The importance of this term goes far back in Chinese history, well before the beginning of the Common Era. “Yuan” refers to the creative power of heaven (tian). For the Chinese, heaven is not the home of the world-creating god of Judeo-Christian tradition, but the force that continually gives birth to the whole world and everything in it. It is something that is universal: “Heaven covers everything,” according to an old Chinese saying. Khubilai Khan thus proclaimed the right of the Mongols to rule not just China, but also the rest of Eurasia (see Document 2, below). The ideal contained in the dynastic name “Yuan” contrasts with the reality of Mongol rule in China. In the words of John D. Langlois: Mongol rule in China, like Mongol rule elsewhere, was the rule of conquerors. The Mongols’ aim was to enrich themselves. Their perceptions of how best to accomplish that aim changed over time, but Mongol superiority and enrichment remained their chief concerns in China (Langlois 1981: 9). Chinese, Persian, and Russian sources document the great destruction of life and property caused by Mongol armies. They also record the “extraordinary speed and ruthlessness” by which the Mongols accomplished their goals. Frequently neglected, however, are the economic and cultural achievements PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

127

made possible by Mongol rule over Eurasia (Rossabi 2002: 13). Discussion of these two facets of the Mongol conquests generally fall under two headings: “communication” and “destruction” (Allsen 2001: 4). In the former, the nomads create a pax [peace], which secures and facilitates long-distance travel and commerce, encouraging representatives of sedentary civilizations, the Polos for example, to move across the various cultural zones of Eurasia and thereby take on the role of the primary agents of diffusion. In the latter, the nomads ... impede contact and destroy culture by their ferocity and military might. For some nationalist historians, nomadic conquest, especially that of the Mongols, was a regressive force in human history accounting for their country’s “backwardness” in modern times1 (Allsen 2001: 4-5). According to Thomas Allsen, although both arguments coexist, it’s more useful to consider how cultural transmission was “embedded in the very structure of Mongolian rule and in the basic ecological requirements of nomadism” (Allsen 2001: 5): . . . As a decided minority in their own state, the Mongols made extensive use of foreigners, without local political ties, to help them rule over their vast domains. This technique received its most elaborate development in China, where the Mongols, for the purposes of official recruitment and promotion, divided the Yuan population into four categories: Mongols, Central and Western Asians . . , North Chinese, and South Chinese. Moreover, quotas were established so that the Mongols and West Asians were assured “equal” representation with those selected from the two Chinese personnel pools. Those so appointed were in turn served by a large number of assistants and secretaries of equally diverse social and cultural origins . . . There were, in other words, quite literally thousands of agents of cultural transmission and change dispersed throughout the Mongol realm (Allsen 2001: 6-7).

UNIT 2 – F

The use of foreign advisers by the Mongols in both the eastern and western parts of their empire created conditions that uniquely favored cultural diffusion.2 The documents included in this unit attempt to present a balanced picture of the Mongol achievement. In doing this, students will gain insight into the positive and negative aspects of empire. Rationale: Students will be able to describe the geographical extent of the Mongol empire, understand how they achieved their military conquests, learn about Mongol rule in China, and evaluate the important contributions of the Mongols to Eurasian cultural exchange. Time: One or two class sessions. Instructional Resources: Documents; a map of the Mongol empire (Map J). Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure:

1 2

128

•

Teacher’s introduction. Distribute map and documents to students.

•

Review of basic vocabulary: nomad, sedentary, agrarian, cavalry, Golden Horde, Khan, tribute, etc. (see Glossary). These terms should be assigned along with reading on the Mongol empire.3 This homework should precede the lesson.

The view of the Mongol conquest of Russia held by Russian scholars. Also see Daniel Waugh’s discussion of the “Pax Mongolica” on the Silk Road Seattle website http://www.silk-road.com/artl/paxmongolica.shtml.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

•

Students read the documents and answer the accompanying questions.

•

The class is next divided into groups and students are given the handout entitled “What is an Empire?” (p. 140). They are asked to read it and make of list of its basic points. The teacher then asks the following questions: 1. Which documents support the ideas in the handout? 2. Do any of the documents contradict the handout? 3. Do the documents include any points about the Mongol empire that the handout omits?

The groups convene to discuss these questions. Whole Group Reflection: A spokesperson presents each group’s results. It is important that he or she use speciﬁc examples from the documents to back up the group’s ﬁndings. Instructional Modification:

•

The teacher needs to vary the makeup of the groups, putting students who need more assistance with those who require less.

UNIT 2 – F

•

The documents can be adapted to accommodate different reading and comprehension levels. This activity should lend itself to participation by students with special needs.

Application: Students write a thematic essay for homework.

Directions: Read the following instructions, which include a theme and a task. Follow them to create a well-organized essay with an introduction including a thesis statement, several paragraphs explaining the thesis, and a conclusion. Theme: “As world conquerors, the Mongols made important contributions to the history of Eurasia.” Tasks: (1) Deﬁne Mongols—Who were they? Where did they come from? When did they make their conquests? What territories did they conquer?; (2) Describe three changes brought about by the Mongols in Eurasia; (3) Describe one positive and one negative effect that the Mongols had on Eurasian history. Mongol Bowmen Conquered Much Of Eurasia Riding Small, Sturdy Horses Like This

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Augustinus Wibowo Weng Hongming, 2002, Mongolia) http://www.worldisround.com/articles/12332/photo13.html 3

Suggested for further reading: Roger B. Bech, et al. World History: Patterns of Interaction. Geneva ILL: McDougal Littell & Co., 2002, pp. 294-302; or any other world history textbook.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

129

DOCUMENT 1: THE MONGOL EMPIRE Eurasian history [Eurasia is the combined land mass of Europe and Asia] begins with the Mongols. Within a few decades in the thirteenth century, they had carved out the most sizable empire in world history, stretching from Korea to Western Russia in the north and from Burma to Iraq in the south. Their armies reached all the way to Poland and to Hungary. Though their empire lasted less than a century, it inextricably linked Europe to Asia, ushering in an era of frequent and extended contacts between East and West . . . They expedited and encouraged travel in the sizable section of Asia that was under Mongol rule, permitting European merchants, craftsmen, and envoys, for the ﬁrst time, to journey as far as China. Asian goods reached Europe along the caravan trails, and the ensuing European demand for these products eventually inspired the search for a sea route to Asia (Rossabi 1988: 1-2).

1. Describe geographically how the Mongol Empire connected Asia to Europe.

UNIT 2 – F

130

2. Whom did this connection benefit?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 2: CHOOSING THE NAME OF A DYNASTY In 1234, Chinggis Khan’s third son became emperor in north China. One of the important things a ﬁrst emperor had to do was select a dynastic name. His advisors chose “Yuan.” Why was this name chosen? Previous dynasties had taken their names from speciﬁc places. The “Han” in “Han dynasty” (202 BCE-220 CE), for instance, is the name of a region in southwest China. The man who became the ﬁrst Han emperor was originally made king there by a powerful warlord whom he later defeated. After his victory, the King of Han named his dynasty after the place where he had ﬁrst been king. The Mongols were foreigners. Had Khubilai chosen a place connected with his personal history, it would have been outside China. This would have constantly reminded the Chinese that they were being ruled by foreign conquerors. Instead, they chose an ancient word that connected the Mongols not only to China, but also to their vast empire stretching from Korea to the Middle East and western Russia.

UNIT 2 – F

YUAN The Chinese character for the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368)

“Yuan” is an ancient term meaning “original” or “creating.” It refers to the power of Heaven (tian). For the Chinese, heaven is not the home of a god who creates the world (as in Judaism and Christianity). Heaven is a force that continually gives birth to the whole world and everything in it. It is something that is universal: “Heaven covers everything,” according to an old Chinese saying. Khubilai Khan thus proclaimed the right of the Mongols to rule not just China, but also the rest of Eurasia.

1. What did dynasties before the Yuan take their names from? 2. Why did Khubilai choose the name Yuan?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

131

DOCUMENT 3: “TOTAL WAR” AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE In the sixth decade of the thirteenth century, the armies of the Mongol Empire were on the march in Poland, Galicia [now the Ukraine and Poland], Syria, Iraq, Iran, Kashmir, southern China, Tibet, the Indochinese peninsula, and Korea . . . These campaigns were undertaken on a gigantic scale, in some cases involving hundreds of thousands of men and enormous quantities of supplies (Allsen 1981: 1). Mongol methods of warfare have a character that is undeniably akin to the modern concept of total war. Mongol warfare had a political, economic, and psychological, as well as a purely military, dimension. The Mongol people and their nomadic allies were fully mobilized . . . The magnitude and intensity of the effort to identify and exploit the empire’s vast human and material resources likewise invites comparison with modern total wars. So, too, does the scale of Mongol operations in the 1250s, which in terms of the number of troops engaged and the distances involved was not again equaled until the wars of the Napoleonic era and not surpassed until the wars of the twentieth century (Allsen 1987: 224-225).

1. Give two characteristics of total war. UNIT 2 – F

132

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 4: A LETTER FROM THE GREAT KHAN TO THE KOREANS* In 1231 the Mongols invaded Korea from their base in north China. They demanded that the Korean court surrender and send local products as gifts. The Koreans did this, but the Mongols weren’t satisfied. This letter is from the Mongol ruler of north China, Chinggis Khan’s third son. It asks for more gifts, as well as young men and women to be sent as hostages. The Koreans did as the Mongols asked, and there was peace for six months. In the end, however, the Koreans revolted and resisted the Mongols. They finally surrendered in 1259.

Our great army has been separated from home for many days, and the clothes that we have been wearing are now all worn out. You are to consider this and bring one million military uniforms. Besides this special presentation, you are to bring for presentation ten thousand pieces of genuine purple silk gauze. The two hundred and thirty otter skins that you ﬁrst brought are good. Now, when you come with the purple things, you are to have twenty thousand of the best otter skins brought along. . . . You shall present to the Khan young men from the royal family, one thousand princesses, and ladies of the great princes. Besides this, you are also to bring daughters of the great officials. From your crown prince, general, great princes, young masters and great officials, we want one thousand sons and also one thousand daughters presented to the Khan. You are to say, “Yes!”

UNIT 2 – F

In the event that you deal with this matter speedily, you will then speed the return to peace of your lands and villages. In the event that you should not complete this matter, you will sleep forever, and grief there will be (Adapted from Ledyard 1963: 234).

1. What is the tone of this document? Do the Mongols look down upon the Koreans? 2. How would the Korean hostages serve as agents of cultural diffusion?

The Mongol Bow, Made Of Wood, Horn Or Bone, Fish Glue, And Sinew, Was Perhaps The Most Powerful Weapon In The World Before The Invention Of Modern Firearms

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

133

DOCUMENT 5: MONGOL CAVALRY TACTICS* Mongol boys practiced archery and riding from a very early age. When not at war, Mongol men practiced these skills by hunting. Also, the hard life of a nomadic herdsman prepared them for the hardships of military campaigns. Marco polo wrote the following about the Mongol cavalry:

They are never ashamed to ﬂee from the enemy. They maneuver freely, shooting at the enemy, now from this quarter, now from that. They have trained their horses so well that they wheel this way or that as quickly as a dog would do . . . When they are ﬂeeing at top speed, they twist round with their bows and let ﬂy their arrows so skillfully that they kill the horses of the enemy and their riders too . . . As soon as they decide that they have killed enough of the pursuing horses and horsem*n, they wheel round and attack (Adapted from Latham 1958: 101).

1. How does the nomadic lifestyle of the Mongols make them skilled in warfare? 2. What is the advantage of fleeing from the enemy? UNIT 2 – F

3. Can you name one other people who also exhibited similar military skills?

DOCUMENT 6: THE MONGOLS AND SIEGE WARFARE* From their base in North China, the Mongols first attacked Korea in 1231. This document describes the siege of a Korean walled town in that year. Pak So is the Korean official in charge of defense. The Mongols employed foreign advisors to construct giant siege weapons.

The Mongols encircled the town in several layers and attacked the west, south, and north gates day and night. The troops in the city went out at once and attacked them. . . . The Mongols constructed wheeled observation towers as well as great platforms wrapped with cowhide in which they hid soldiers, using it to approach the base of the town walls to excavate a tunnel. Pak So bored through the city walls and poured molten iron to burn the observation towers. The ground also collapsed, crushing thirty Mongols to death. . . . The Mongols suddenly attacked the south of the town with ﬁfteen large catapults. Pak So constructed platforms on the town walls, and mounting catapults on them, he hurled stones and drove the attackers off (Lee 1997: 202).

1. How did this battle differ from the kind of warfare the Mongols were skilled at?

134

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 7: WHY DID THE MONGOLS NEED FOREIGNERS? The Mongols ruled densely populated agrarian societies such as China by employing foreign advisors. Their aim was to get the maximum “bang for the buck” out of conquered lands.

In Chinggis Khan’s [c. 1162-1227] day the population of the eastern steppe, modern Mongolia, was somewhere between 700,000 and 1,000,000. Moreover, as pastoralists [people that lived by raising and tending herds of sheep, goats, horses, and so forth], they could hardly provide specialists from their own ranks to administer and exploit the sedentary population that fell under their military control (Allsen 2001: 5). . . . As a decided minority in their own state, the Mongols made extensive use of foreigners, without local political ties, to help them rule over their vast domains. This technique received its most elaborate development in China, where the Mongols, for the purposes of official recruitment and promotion, divided the Yuan population into four categories: Mongols, Central and Western Asians . . . North Chinese, and South Chinese. Moreover, quotas were established so that the Mongols and West Asians were assured “equal” representation with those selected from the two Chinese personnel pools. Those so appointed were in turn served by a large number of assistants and secretaries of equally diverse social and cultural origins . . . There were, in other words, quite literally thousands of agents of cultural transmission and change dispersed throughout the Mongol realm (Allsen 2001: 6-7).

UNIT 2 – F

1. Were the Mongols able to rule sedentary societies? Why?

2. How did the Mongol Empire bring about cultural transmission?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

135

DOCUMENT 8: CULTURAL TRANSMISSION IN PERSIA AND CHINA UNDER MONGOL RULE Chinggis Khan (1167-1227) ﬁrst united the tribes of Mongolia in the early thirteenth century. By the late 1200s, the Mongols ruled an empire stretching from China and Korea in the east to the Persian Gulf and the Black Sea in the west. The Mongols ruled Persia and parts of the Middle East as the Ilkhanid dynasty (1258-1353 CE). “Ilkhan” means “subordinate khan”—the Mongol rulers of Persia regarded themselves as subordinate to the “Great Khan,” the ruler of China and Mongolia (the Yuan dynasty, 1279-1368). Under the Mongol empire a merchant like Marco Polo could travel safely from one end of Eurasia to the other. Thousands of other men and women also traveled east and west during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Some were carried off when Mongol armies conquered their homelands. The Mongols valued skilled metal workers and weavers, for instance, and would force them to go where they were most needed. Others went voluntarily in order to work for the Mongols. All of these people were agents of cultural exchange and transmission.

UNIT 2 – F

List (1) gives some of the skilled Arabs and Persians who worked in China under Mongol rule. List (2) shows some of the skilled Chinese (and other peoples) who worked for the Mongols in Persia and the Middle East. Study the two lists and answer the questions that follow. 1. The Mongols employed Arabs and Persians in China as: accountants administrators architects astronomers artillerymen carpet makers clergymen

envoys geographers historians merchants musicians physicians scribes

singers soldiers sugar makers textile workers translators valets wrestlers

2. Chinese and other Mongol subjects from east and north Asia served in Persia and the Middle East as: accountants administrators artillerymen astronomers carpenters clergymen cooks

court merchants engineers envoys farmers physicians scribes

soldiers stonemasons translators wet nurses wives wrestlers

(Adapted from Allsen 2001: 6)

1. What professions would the Mongols employ in government? 2. What professions would the Mongol court or nobility employ? 3. What professions might the Mongol military use?

136

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 9: YELU CHUCAI Perhaps the most famous foreigner employed by the Mongols was a man named Yelu Chucai (11891243). He was adviser to Chinggis Khan’s third son, the man who ruled north China before Khubilai Khan. Yelu was a Khitan. The Khitan were a people from Manchuria who established the Liao dynasty (9071125). The Liao were one of Song dynasty China’s northern rivals. Many upper class Khitans were sinicized. This means they adopted Chinese dress, customs, and writing. Yelu Chucai, a descendant of the Khitan royal house, was educated like an upper class Chinese gentleman. Many Khitans went to work for the Mongols. At this period in the history of the Mongol conquests, the question was: Should we tax the farmers just like any other Chinese ruling house, or should we turn north China into pasture for our herds? Yelu Chucai contributed to court debate on this issue.

In the course of their conquests, the Mongols availed themselves of the service of numerous men with military, administrative, and diplomatic skills, drawn from the sedentary civilizations of Inner and Eastern Asia. Very prominent among them, especially in the early phase of Mongol expansionism, were a number of sinicized non-Chinese. A leading ﬁgure in the group was Yelu Chucai, whose fame rested chieﬂy on the administrative reforms that were carried out under his leadership during the reign of Ögödei (r. 1229-41) and on his constant endeavor to mitigate the harsh Mongol rule in north China. It is mainly for these activities that he has been praised as one of the greatest political ﬁgures in the history of Asia . . .

UNIT 2 – F

. . . the conquerors had to choose to either annihilate Chinese civilization or adapt themselves to it. Since they had rejected the former course thanks to the momentous intervention of men like Yelu Chucai, a change in their original policy became unavoidable. His success in preventing the devastation of north China and its reduction to pastures for the horses of the nomads was a real one (Adapted from de Rachewiltz 1993: 136, 171).

1. What was Yelu’s ethnic background? What did this show about Mongol methods of governing?

2. What did Yelu’s policy suggestions prevent the Mongols from doing?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

137

DOCUMENT 10: A MONGOL PASSPORT

UNIT

(Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Bequest of Dorothy Graham Bennett, 1993 [1993.256] Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yuan/ho_1993.256.htm

2 – F

Mongol Passport (Paizi), Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), 13th Century China Iron with silver inlay; H. 7 1/8 in. (18.1 cm) Purchase, Bequest of Dorothy Graham Bennett, 1993 (1993.256)

This iron passport is from Yuan dynasty China. Issued to government officials and important guests, it guaranteed safe passage to anyone traveling in Mongol-ruled territory. The writing on it was invented by a Tibetan monk especially for the Mongolian language. Marco Polo probably carried one of these. The inscription on this Mongol passport says: By the strength of eternal Heaven, an edict of the Emperor [Khan]. He who has no respect shall be guilty (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yuan/ho_1993.256.htm) The Mongols were the ﬁrst to innovate a worldwide network of communications that in fact linked East and West, thus facilitating the movement of peoples and ideas. A horse relay postal system was introduced . . . in 1234 . . . The structure of the system was based on the building of a post station at stages equivalent to a day’s journey; that is about 25-30 miles. The stations held stocks of horses and fodder for those who traveled. Normally, messenger traffic was about 25 miles a day, but express messengers could go much faster, 200-300 miles a day (Shagdar 2000: 133).

1. What do the words “He who has no respect . . .” on the iron passport mean? Respect for whom?

138

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 11: MONGOL DISCRIMINATION AGAINST THE CHINESE After the Mongols conquered north China in 1234, it took them almost fifty years to conquer the Chinese-ruled south. This experience affected the way they ruled China.

Within China the long and bitter struggle against the Southern Song left lasting wounds. Chinese hatred and bitterness were matched by Mongol suspicion and distrust of the southerners. The Mongols placed southerners in the lowest category in their fourfold division of society along ethnic lines. Highest status was accorded to the Mongols. Next came . . . Mongol allies, largely from Central Asia and the Near East, such as Turks, Persians, and Syrians . . . The third status group included all inhabitants of north China: those of Khitan or Korean family background, as well as native Chinese. Finally, at the bottom, were the eighty percent of the population that lived in the south. This fourfold division of society deeply affected the Yuan’s treatment of its subjects. It was expressed in the recruitment and employment of government officials, in the conduct of legal cases, and in taxation (Adapted from Schirokauer 1991: 169).

1. Why were the Chinese discriminated against? UNIT 2 – F

2. How did this affect the way the Mongols treated their subjects?

DOCUMENT 12: MONGOL RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE* The Mongol tolerance of foreigners also extended to foreign religions. The early khans liked to sponsor religion debates in their courts. Also, under the Mongols all religions were granted tax exemption. Marco Polo tells us about Khubilai Khan’s attitude toward Judaism, Christianity, and Islam:

Khubilai ... returned to his capital and stayed there till February and March, the season of our Easter. Learning that this was one of our most important holidays, he sent for all the Christians and had them bring with them the New Testament. After repeatedly burning incense all around it, he kissed it and desired that all his noblemen do the same. He does this on all the major holidays of the Christians, such as Easter and Christmas. He does the same thing on the important holidays of the Muslims, the Jews, and the idol worshippers [the term Marco Polo uses for Buddhism]. Being asked why he did so, he replied: “There are four prophets who are worshipped with greatest respect. The Christians say that their God is Jesus Christ, the Muslims Muhammad, the Jews Moses, and the Buddhists the Buddha . . . And I worship all four, so that I may be sure of worshipping him who is greatest in heaven (Adapted from Latham 1958: 119).

1. Why does Khubilai worship all four religions?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

139

Student Handout:

What is an Empire? (a) An empire is an institutionalized system whereby a particular elite, often but not always made up of a single nationality, exploits the populations of wide territories made up of different ethnicities. In return, the imperial power offers various forms of protection to improve the comfort and security of life: (b) Physical protection by military force against outside hostile powers or foreign invasion; (c) Protection and promotion of economic activities such as farming, manufacturing, and trading; (c) Protection against attempts by powerful local elites to improve their position. (d) The imperial power often offers access to (or demands agreement with) a universal ideal generally seen as a positive thing for all its citizens. This sometimes takes the form of religion (Adapted from Billows 1997: 266). UNIT 2 – F

Vocabulary Institutionalized: The process of becoming an established law, custom, or practice. Elite: A group of people regarded as superior to other groups. Exploit: To take full advantage of, to use for one’s advantage.

140

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Unit G

CHINA’S UYGHURS— A DISAFFECTED MUSLIM MINORITY

The three lessons in this unit (1) discuss relations between the Uyghurs and the government of the People’s Republic of China; (2) ask how China’s two major Muslim minorities differ from one another; and (3) has students read a poem called Awaken (1931), a rallying cry for Uyghur resistance to the Chinese.

LESSON 1 Relations Between The Uyghurs and the Government of the People’s Republic of China Essential Questions: How do disaffected peoples voice their grievances? How can the Uyghur (sometimes spelled Uygur) people and the government of the People’s Republic of China improve relations? Learning Experience: In studying the problems facing the Uyghurs, one of China’s largest minority nationalities, students will see a reﬂection of contemporary problems that face minority groups in other societies. Anticipatory Set: In the past, the term “melting pot” described the ideal of assimilation for people emigrating to the U.S. Does it still apply today? How might minority people such as China’s Uyghurs react to this concept?

UNIT 2 – G

Context: Over eight million Uyghurs live in China’s Xinjiang province. Ethnically a Turkic people,1 their society and culture is Muslim. They have little in common with the Han Chinese, who control government and society in contemporary China. Efforts by the Chinese government to assimilate Xinjiang and its minorities2 have included the settlement of Han Chinese in the province—today about six million ethnic Chinese live in Xinjiang. This and other policies have led to mistrust, deﬁance, and violence by Uyghur separatists, and repression by the Chinese state. Since the early 1990s, the Uyghurs have increasingly come to see themselves as an oppressed people. Rationale: Students will use the Chinese Constitution and excerpts from a New York Times article to examine the reasons for Uyghur discontent. They will explore possible solutions that would lessen tension between the government and the Uyghur people. Time: Two forty-minute sessions Instructional Resources: Map of China; map of Asia; document-based questions using three texts: (1) The basic policy statement on China’s minorities from Article Three of the Constitution of the

The modern state of Turkey is home to only one of many Turkic peoples. Originally, the Turks came from what is now Mongolia in the sixth century CE. Many different Turkic languages are spoken from Turkey in Asia Minor to Xinjiang in west China. Information about China’s fifty-five minority groups can be obtained from http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/index.htm. This is a Chinese government site.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

141

People’s Republic of China; (2) A brief discussion of China’s national minorities; and (3) Excerpts from a New York Times article, “Deﬁant Chinese Muslims Keep Their Own Time.” Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: Full-class discussion: Why are minority groups often unhappy with their government? Write suggested reasons on the board. What solutions are there to the listed problems?

1. Distribute copies of maps of Xinjiang, China, Asia, which must be printed out from the following websites: Xinjiang: China: Asia:

http://www.maps-of-china.com/xinjiang-s-ow.shtml http://www.maps-of-china.com/china-country.shtml http://www.maps-of-china.com/china-continent.shtml

Point out the location of Xinjiang province, home of the Uyghur people. Make sure to indicate how close Xinjiang is to the Muslim world of Central and West Asia. 2. Have the entire class read Document 1 (Article Three of the Chinese Constitution) and Document 2 (“China’s National Minorities”) and answer the questions that follow. 3. Divide the class into groups and have students read Document 3 either silently or aloud. They will then discuss and write down the main points and answer the questions. 4. After each group has completed this task, the teacher has each group report to the class. The other students write down the most important points contained in the report.

UNIT

5. At the end of the presentations, ask students which problems seem the most serious and why. Write their responses on the board.

2 – G

Whole Group Reflection: Students explore other countries and events that are similar to the Uyghur problem and examine how minority groups attain equality in these situations. Explore the role economics and education play in these events. Instructional Modification: Students can assess the situation facing the Uyghurs in the context of the U.N.’s Universal Declaration on Human Rights : http://www.hrweb.org/legal/undocs.html#UDHR

Application: Using the passage from the Chinese Constitution and the New York Times article, write an explanatory essay about the grievances of the Uyghur people. Explore how at least two issues could possibly be solved. Use your knowledge of similar situations in the United States or world history as added examples.

142

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 1: ARTICLE THREE OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA* Underlined words are defined in the glossary at the end of Document 3

Article Three of the Chinese Constitution states the basic policy of the People’s Republic of China toward its minority nationalities. The People’s Republic of China is a unitary multinational state. All nationalities are equal. Discrimination against or oppression of any nationality, and acts which undermine unity of the nationalities, are prohibited. All the nationalities have the freedom to use and develop their own spoken and written languages, and to preserve or reform their own customs and ways. Regional autonomy applies in areas where a minority nationality lives in a compact community. All national autonomous areas are inseparable parts of the People’s Republic of China.

1. What protections are guaranteed to minorities? 2. What is China determined to preserve through Article Three? 3. Why does the Chinese government stress “unity” (first paragraph) and “inseparability” (last paragraph)? What fear does this express? UNIT 2 – G

DOCUMENT 2: CHINA’S NATIONAL MINORITIES Although most of China’s 1.3 billion people are Han Chinese,3 more than 100 million people belong to China’s ﬁfty-ﬁve national minority groups. Some minorities, such as China’s eight million Uyghurs, live in government-established national minority areas. To be a member of a minority group in contemporary China means . . . economic disadvantage, poor representation at national levels, religious repression and educational disadvantage. Direct repression is only encountered when the State perceives religion as a galvanizing force in demands for independence . . . (Benewick 1999:107).

1. About what percentage of China’s population consists of minority people? 2. Name two things that result from being a member of a minority group in China.

“Han” refers to the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE). Because many institutions typical of later Chinese society were established in the Han period, the Chinese came to call themselves “people of Han.”

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

143

DOCUMENT 3: “DEFIANT CHINESE MUSLIMS KEEP THEIR OWN TIME” In this far western outpost, where a Muslim majority lives restively under Chinese rule, you can tell a lot about a man’s politics by how he sets his clock. For the last half-century, China’s Communist leaders have required the entire country to mark the hours by Beijing time, even though this far-ﬂung city of veiled women, spice markets, and donkey carts should be two, probably three, time zones behind. ... So many local Muslims, deﬁant and increasingly disaffected, set their watches two hours behind Beijing, a nod both to nature and their separate identity. “The Chinese want us to follow Beijing time, but most of us are unwilling,” said a young soda vendor named Abduljim, whose timepiece on a recent morning read 7:45, when the official time was 9:45. “We are Uyghurs—Muslims—we should follow Xinjiang time, our time, here.” Time, like almost everything else here in Kashgar, has become suffused with questions of power, control, and ethnic divisions—between the dominant Chinese and the native Muslims, Uyghurs who speak a Turkic language and are culturally related to the peoples of nearby Central Asia. And in recent years, those divisions have intensiﬁed greatly, as more Chinese move into the region and local Uyghurs have fallen on economic hard times. A small Uyghur separatist movement has carried out an occasional bombing in Xinjiang and Chinese leaders rail against “splittest” activities here. But far more common are the million little acts of personal deﬁance—small efforts to proclaim the difference—like wearing Islamic dress, refusing to speak Chinese, or setting your watch to local time.

UNIT

. . . This rising disillusionment comes in part because government programs that once assisted minority groups have dwindled, but even more because of a vast inﬂux of ethnic Chinese into the regiondiluting the culture and taking natives’ jobs.

2 – G

. . . The net effect is that Uyghur culture has receded in much of Xinjiang Province. Many local news programs now use Mandarin rather than Uyghur. More signs are in Chinese characters—with Uyghur script in tiny letters underneath. Urumqi, the provincial capital, has almost lost its ethnic Uyghur feel, becoming just another medium-sized Chinese city of white tiled office buildings. (Elizabeth Rosenthal, The New York Times, November 19, 2000).

1. What does setting his or her watch differently from Beijing symbolize to a Uyghur? 2. Define “acts of personal defiance.” Why are they important to the Uyghur? 3. Name one threat to the stability of Uyghur culture. 4. Name another minority people that face, or have faced problems similar to China’s Uyghurs. Describe similarities or differences.

144

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Lesson 1: Vocabulary Abridge: To cut short, to deprive of, to diminish. Compact: Closely packed or joined together. Disaffected: Discontented, resentful. Galvanize: To stimulate or excite, as if by an electric shock. Influx: To come in, to enter. Multinational: Of or relating to two or more nationalities. Nationality: A people having a common origin, tradition, or language. Rail: To complain or protest strongly. Recede: To shrink back from a certain point. Restive: Uneasy, anxious. Servitude: A condition in which one lacks liberty, especially to determine one’s way of life. Suffuse: To be spread over or through, as in liquid or light. Unitary: Undivided, whole. UNIT 2 – G

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

145

LESSON 2 How China’s Two Major Muslim Minorities Differ From One Another Essential Question: How do China’s two major Muslim minorities differ from one another? Learning Experience: Students will learn about the relation between the Uyghur and Hui peoples and contemporary Chinese society by examining sets of photos in the context of social and cultural history. Anticipatory Set: Do you get a shock when you look at an old family photo album? How much can you tell about the past from looking at old photos? Context: By the late 1990s, there were over 17 million Muslims in the People’s Republic of China. The two largest Muslim groups are the Uyghur (8.1 million) and the Hui (9.3 million). The Uyghur live mostly in China’s remote northwest, in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region. They are an oasisdwelling people speaking the Uyghur language, a Turkic dialect. Mandarin Chinese is a second language to them. Many Uyghur either do not speak it, or do not speak it well. Over the years they have sought independence from China, calling their region East Turkestan. In the last decade, tensions have increased due to the poor educational system, the central government’s control of the region’s natural resources, and the inﬂux of Han Chinese migrant workers. Although many Uyghurs have assimilated into Han culture, many remain deﬁantly rooted in Uyghur culture.

UNIT 2 – G

The Hui, unlike the Uyghur, are not a hom*ogeneous group. The Hui are of Persian and Central Asian origin, believed to be the descendants of Muslims who came to China during the Yuan dynasty (12791368). Over the centuries, they’ve intermarried with the Han people, and the only aspect that distinguishes them from the Han is religion. Unlike the Uyghur and other minority groups, they wear no distinctive clothing that sets them apart. For the most part, the Hui do not live separately from the Han. Geographically speaking, they are the most widely distributed minority people and can be found all over China. Rationale: Using photos as a primary source, students will examine the differences between these two Muslim groups and explore the effects “difference” plays in each group’s interaction with the Han majority. Time: Two to three forty-minute sessions (depending on Internet access). Instructional Resources: Photos of the Hui and Uyghur. Procedure: Divide the class in half. One side will explore Uyghur culture and history, while the other will explore Hui culture and history. Each student receives a group of either three photos of Uyghur or three photos of Hui (student handout, pp. 148, 149).

Both halves of the class should then be divided into smaller groups. Each group is assigned a topic: culture, history, ethnic origins, customs, food, etc. Students next surf the Internet to discover sites with information on their assigned topic. They take notes on the topic and then gather to debrief each other. The following are some suggested web sites with which to begin the search:

146

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Uyghurs http://www.oqya.5u.com/about.html

Hui http://www.cpamedia.com/politics/hui_muslims_in_china/ http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-hui.htm http://www.chsource.org/Hui.htm

Using the Photo Analysis Worksheet (p. 150), students will then examine their three photos in detail. They should consider things such as physical features, clothing, and the environment in which the photo was taken. In full-class discussion, students explain how the groups vary. New, smaller groups of four students are formed. Each group is equally divided between “experts” on a Hui topic and “experts” on the same Uyghur topic. The groups share their research results. These smaller groups will attempt to answer the following questions: Why do these two Muslim groups look so different? How might Han Chinese differently view each group? Whole Group Reflection: Full class discussion and debrieﬁng on the information gathered through the Internet. What inferences can be made about how each of these Muslim groups relate to the dominant Han culture? How does the dominant culture relate to each group? UNIT

Instructional Modification: Students can work in pairs on one topic, perhaps pairing experienced internet users with those less experienced. A Venn diagram can also be used to compare and contrast Uyghur and Hui.

2 – G

Application: Students will write a four page essay based on the following scenario: You are a travel writer and have been asked by a publisher to write an essay for a new guide book. The essay is to be called “The Road from Xian to Kashgar.” Using the information learnt in class and from the net, you have to explain the similarities and differences between the Uyghur and Hui.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

147

Student Handout: The Uyghurs Photo 1: Uyghur Couple

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Sharon Shambourger, 2001, Xinjiang)

Photo 2: Uyghur Mother and Child

UNIT 2 – G

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Sharon Shambourger, 2001, Xinjiang)

Photo 3: Uyghur School

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Sharon Shambourger, 2001, Xinjiang)

148

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Student Handout: The Hui Photo 1: Hui Anti-alcohol Committee Rally

Photo 2: Yan in Her Wedding Gown

UNIT 2 – G

Photo 3: Peng

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

149

Student Handout: Photo Analysis Worksheet 4 Step 1. Observation

A. Study the photograph for two minutes for an overall impression and then examine individual items. Divide the photograph into four equal parts and study each section to see what new details become visible. Some of the things you might look for are: • • •

Types of clothing; facial expressions; are people in crowds or alone? What types of objects do you see? How might they be used?; Are there important objects in the background? What activities are going on? Are they related to work, religion, or leisure? Are people enjoying them?

B. Use the chart below to list people, objects, and activities in the photographs. Uyghur / Hui

Photo 1

Photo 2

Photo 3

People Objects Activities

Step 2. Inference

Based on what you have observed above, list three things you might infer from the photograph. UNIT

2 – G

2. 3. Step 3. Questions

A. What questions does this photograph raise in your mind?

B. Where could you find answers to them?

150

Adapted from the U.S. National Archives & Records Administration’s Photo Analysis Worksheet http://www.archives.gov/digital_classroom/lessons/analysis_worksheets/photo.html

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

LESSON 3 Awaken (1931), A Rallying Cry For Uyghur Resistance To The Chinese. Essential Question: How can poetry expand and deepen one’s understanding of history? How does Awaken by Abdukhaliq (1901-1933), provide insight into Uyghur culture and history? Learning Experience: Students will read and analyze a nationalist poem written under the pen name “Uyghur.” Abdukhaliq wrote during one of the most turbulent periods in the history of UyghurChinese relations. Anticipatory Set: If you wrote a poem about an important or troubling experience, how would it differ from simply describing it in prose? Context: The region now called Xinjiang didn’t become part of China until the eighteenth century, under the Qing dynasty (1644-1911).

At the end of the nineteenth century, Muslim revolt brought about a brief period of independence from Chinese rule. Around the time Abdukhaliq wrote, tension between the Muslim populace and the Chinese authorities was high. In 1933, Abdukhaliq, along with twenty-six other intellectuals, was executed for inciting the people to revolt. The life and career of Abdukhaliq became a symbol of Uyghur pride and resistance. Awaken is now recited by Uyghur children at times of protest. Rationale: Students will explore how poetry can add to their understanding of historical events. By analyzing the poem, students can examine the power of words to stir people into action. Time: One forty-minute session.

UNIT 2 – G

Instructional Resources: Text of a poem, Awaken by Abdukhaliq (1901-1933). Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: The teacher reviews the concept of nationalism. The following deﬁnition might prove useful.

The term ‘nationalism’ is generally used to describe two phenomena: (1) the attitude that the members of a nation have when they care about their national identity, and (2) the actions that the members of a nation take when seeking to achieve (or sustain) some form of political sovereignty (Miscevic 2001: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2001/entries/nationalism/). The teacher distributes a copy of Awaken and reads it aloud in order to provide a model for how it should be read. Students then read it silently to themselves. Finally, a student reads the poem aloud to the entire class. The teacher brings up the subject of translation to make sure the class understands they are reading a text one step removed from the original. The terms “mood” and “tone” are reviewed, as they apply to poetry.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

151

Mood: The prevailing emotions of a work or of the author in his or her creation of the work. Tone: The author’s attitude toward his or her audience may be deduced from the tone of the work. A formal tone may create distance or convey politeness, while an informal tone may encourage a friendly, intimate, or intrusive feeling in the reader.5

In small group discussion, the students will ascertain the mood/tone of the poem by identifying specific words and phrases. Then the students will be asked to make a list of verbs and nouns from each of the seven sections of the poem. Particular attention should be paid to the use of the word “if ” and the part it plays in the poet’s view of the situation of the Uyghur people. Students will also record what the poet speciﬁcally asks the people to do in each section and answer the following question: What is the role of the poet in this poem? Whole Group Reflection: A spokesperson from each group will present his or her ﬁndings to the whole class. The list of verbs and nouns will be written on the board and examined for their power in arousing the poet’s audience.

The teacher will ask the following questions: What event do you think prompted the poet to write this poem? How does a poem give a different perspective from a piece of historical writing? What might make this poem easy to memorize? Instructional Modification: Each group can be assigned ﬁve lines of the poem and, in jigsaw fashion, put the pieces of the poem together. Each group will report its reaction to these small sections to the whole class. Students could also write a response to the poem from the point of view of a Chinese government official. UNIT 2 – G

Application: Students will choose any ﬁve lines from Awaken and translate them into a drawing, collage, or stick ﬁgure rendition. (All the assignments will later be put together to create a mural.) The students must write an accompanying piece explaining why the lines were chosen and why particular images were used. They should include an example from U.S. or world history of an event that might have required a similar poem—the French Revolution, for example.

Awaken (1931)* 1

Awaken (Oyghan) Hey! Uyghur, it is time to awaken, You haven’t any possessions, You have nothing to fear. 5 If you don’t rescue yourselves From this death, Your situation will become very grave. Stand up! I say, Raise your head and wipe your eyes! 10 Cut the heads off of your enemies, Let the blood ﬂow! If you don’t open your eyes and look around you, You’ll die pitifully, helplessly. Your body appears lifeless. 15 And yet you don’t worry about dying. I call out to you but you do not react, It seems as though you want to die unconsciously. Open your eyes wide and look about you. You must contemplate the future, 5

152

20 Think about it a long time. If this opportunity should fall from your grasp, The future will bode much hardship, much hardship. My heart breaks for you my Uyghur people, My brothers in arms, relatives, my family. 25 I worry for your lives, So I am calling for you to awaken. Have you not heard me yet? What has happened to you? There will be a day when you will regret, 30 And on that day you will understand, Just what I have been telling you. “Damn!” you will say when you realize That you missed your only chance, And on that day you will know that I, Uyghur, was right (Rudelson 1997: 148).

From the Gale Glossary of Literary Terms http://www.galegroup.com/free_resources/glossary

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Unit H

FROM TSARS TO COMMISSARS TO INDEPENDENCE: THE KAZAKHS AND THE RUSSIANS

Essential Question: How did the Kazakh people suffer under both Tsarist and Soviet rule? Learning Experience: Students will learn about the expansion of Tsarist Russia and its impact on one important Central Asian people, the Kazakhs. In studying the fortunes of the Kazakh people, students will trace the decline of their nomadic way of life under colonialism and the rise of ethnic selfconsciousness and nationalism in the twentieth and twenty-ﬁrst centuries. Anticipatory Set: By the nineteenth and early twentieth century, the European powers and China had divided up almost the entire Muslim world. They swallowed up empires, small kingdoms, and the Eurasian steppe, home to nomadic people like the Kazakhs. What does colonialism mean to colonized peoples? What did it mean to nomads like the Kazakhs? Context: The people of modern Turkey are only one of many Turkic peoples. The ﬁrst known Turkic state was founded in the sixth century and stretched from Mongolia to Central Asia. Later Turkic groups founded dynasties in Iran (the Safavids), northern India (the Mughal Empire), and the Middle East (the Ottoman Empire). Today, people who speak Turkic languages live not only in Turkey but also in Central Asia, northwest China, Iran, Afghanistan, and Russia.

The Kazakhs are the second most numerous Turkic group in Central Asia. A nomadic people, they used the steppe to pasture horses and sheep. All land was owned in common. The Kazakhs ﬁrst encountered Russian traders and soldiers in the seventeenth century. Pressed by enemies from the east, the Kazakhs were unable to prevent Tsarist forces from gaining a foothold in their territory. By the second half of the nineteenth century, their homeland—the steppe region north of the Aral Sea and Lake Balkash—became part of Russia (Map A). This was also the period when Russia completed its conquest of the rest of Central Asia. The steppe could be turned into farmland, so the Kazakhs, unlike other Central Asian peoples, had much contact with the Russians. By the early twentieth century, forty percent of the population in some regions consisted of Russian or Ukrainian settlers. This radically changed the Kazakh way of life, since they “could not proﬁtably continue as nomads with sharply reduced lands. By 1900, much of the Kazakh population was at least partially settled” (Manz, “Historical” 1998: 13). Many Kazakhs ﬂed to western China or Afghanistan.

UNIT 2 – H

Contact with the Russians also meant, at least for some Kazakhs, education in Russian schools. Eventually, this produced an intelligentsia resentful of the Russian takeover. Although small in number, these men were inﬂuential as journalists and politicians. They were affected by nationalist movements that emphasized the unity of all Turkic peoples, including those modernizers who opposed the Ottoman Empire in Turkey at the end of the nineteenth century. The Bolshevik revolution of 1917 was an event of great importance for Central Asians who opposed Russian rule. The communist victory “seemed to promise true liberation, for self-determination of all the subject peoples of the former Tsarist empire was one of its professed goals” (Soucek 2000: 210). The political reality turned out to be quite different. In the years after they took power, the Bolsheviks PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

153

attempted to integrate Central Asia into the Soviet Union. They created national republics based on Stalin’s deﬁnition of a nation as having “common language, territory, psychological makeup, and historical experience” (Manz, “Historical” 1998: 15). In Central Asia, this deﬁnition rarely conformed to the reality of the region’s complex ethnic diversity. After a brief attempt to establish an independent government, Kazakh territory became an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1920. At least 1.5 million Kazakhs and eighty percent of their livestock perished under Stalin’s forced collectivization efforts in the early 1930s. In the 1950s and 60s further settlement by Russians made the Kazakhs a minority in their own country. In the wake of the dissolution of the U.S.S.R., Kazakhstan declared its independence in 1991. It is one of Central Asia’s potentially richest nations, with huge deposits of oil, gas, and minerals. More than four and a half million Kazakhs live outside Kazakhstan, whose population is over sixteen million. Many ﬂed to China and other parts of Asia to escape famine, warfare, and political turmoil. The return of some families to a newly independent Kazakhstan is an important aspect of the nation’s contemporary history. Rationale: Students will review the relationship between colonial powers and colonized peoples. What reasons and justiﬁcations do colonial powers have for their policies? How do colonized peoples regain their independence? Who gains and who loses by colonialism, both during and after colonial rule? Time: One to three forty-minute sessions. Instructional Resources: Map A, Map B, and Map C, ten brief reading selections on Kazakh history from the nineteenth century to the contemporary era. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: The teacher distributes photocopies of Map B, and indicates the countries of Central Asia:

CENTRAL ASIA: UNIT 2 – H

Xinjiang (China’s largest province) Uzbekistan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Northern Afghanistan

The class is divided into pairs or groups of three, with each group receiving one selection to read. They will answer the questions after each selection. In full class, each group’s spokesperson will read the selection and answer the questions for the whole class to copy down. After all selections have been explored, the full class is asked to bring up other examples in global history that are similar to, or different from the Kazakh experience. These examples will be recorded on a large sheet of newsprint and placed on a wall in the classroom. 154

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Whole Group Reflection: Students will discuss how and why the Russians needed/wanted the Kazakh region. Students will also consider how nationalism develops under colonial rule and its positive and negative aspects. Instructional Modification: Strong students can be grouped with weaker students. The selections can be edited or paraphrased to accommodate different reading and comprehension levels. This activity should lend itself to participation by students with special needs. Application: Students will use the selections, the answers to each selection, classroom discussion, and their knowledge of global history to write an essay explaining the relationship between the Russians and Kazakhs. Using at least ﬁve of the selections and other examples from global history, they will deﬁne colonialism, discuss the relationship of the colonial power to the colonized region, and give at least one other example of colonialism that is similar to or different from the Kazakh experience. Other colonial situations that could be used are: Europe/Africa, Great Britain/India, France/Indochina, Japan/Korea.

UNIT 2 – H

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

155

DOCUMENT 1: THE GORCHAKOV CIRCULAR* The following is part of a document called the “Gorchakov Circular,” sent by Russia to the other European powers in 1864. Alexander Gorchakov was the Russian minister of foreign affairs. This passage explains Russia’s reasons for territorial expansion in Central Asia.

The position of Russia in Central Asia is that of all civilized states which are brought into contact with half-savage nomad populations, possessing no ﬁxed social organization. In such cases it always happens that the more civilized State is forced, in the interest of the security of its frontier and its commercial relations, to exercise a certain ascendancy over those whom their turbulent and unsettled character makes most undesirable neighbors (Olcott 1987: 75).

1. Give two reasons Russia wanted to incorporate Central Asia into its territory.

2. What adjective best describes Russia’s attitude toward Central Asia? Why?

DOCUMENT 2: THE SUPERIORITY OF THE COLONIZER* Remarks by V.V. Barthold (1869-1930), Russian historian and author of numerous works on Central Asia.

UNIT

The Turkistanians have all yielded to our military superiority, but have in no way submitted to our spiritual/moral superiority. The task [we face] consists of bringing about acknowledgment of that very thing . . . we should be unable to say that we decisively earned a victory so long as they did not accept that superiority (Allworth, “Commensals” 1998: 193-194).

2 – H

1. Give one way in which the Russians feel superior to the Turkistanians.

156

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 3: TSARIST COLONIALISM The prime motivation of the Russian conquest had been economic self-interest, and the evolution of the colony between 1868 and 1917 amply met that goal. The area became a supplier of raw materials for Russian industry and a consumer of Russian products, after the . . . colonial pattern. We have already pointed to cotton as the most important commodity sent to Russia; its cultivation increased to the verge of becoming a monoculture, and the adverse effect of this one-sidedness was made worse by the . . . decrease in the growing of cereals, which made Central Asia dependent on wheat imports from Russia. The other major aspect was the . . . colonization by agricultural settlers . . . This affected primarily Kazakhstan . . . Some of the most fertile tracts of land were thus seized, with the doubly harmful effects of expropriating the nomads’ grazing grounds and of hampering their seasonal movements in search of water and pasture-land (Soucek 2000: 203).

1. Name two features of the classical model of colonialism. 2. What impact did the monoculture of cotton have on the people of Central Asia?

UNIT 2 – H

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

157

DOCUMENT 4: KAZAKH LANDS * The ﬁrst Central Asian literature to feel the Russian invasion was naturally the poetry composed by the nomads roaming the very outer limits of the plains. From the early nineteenth century, their grazing lands began falling increasingly behind the line of Tsarist forts pushing inward along the entire northern frontier. When war struck, the conﬂict inspired themes of resistance to the Russian invaders and sarcasm for ineffective local generals, but before long poetry expressed the terrible despair over the vanishing of that independent life enjoyed on the plains . . . (Allworth “Focus” 1994: 398). The poem Kazakh Lands is from a book of verse called The Heroes by Mir Jaqib Duwlat-uli (18851937). Duwlat-uli was a Kazakh noble educated in Russian schools. His ﬁrst collection of poetry, entitled Wake Up, Kazakh! (1909), was banned by the Russians. Kazakh Lands (1913) Noble, inﬂuential men, pay attention to this! They say “Strike while the iron is hot;” By not following this proverb, You take responsibility on yourselves for the tears of future generations. Oh, dear native land, you have gone entirely to the [Russian] settlers! The sacred graves of our forefathers are now amidst village streets. The tombs over them will be used . . . for bathhouses, The wooden fences [around them] will go for ﬁrewood. Then, ﬁnding no sign of our old graves we shall pour out streams of tears. The huge lakes and ﬂowing springs, like the summer pastures and forests, are all taken from us. When I think about all this I go out of my mind and burn (as in a ﬁre) from grief. But we accepted citizenship without giving up our land, We hoped to live under the shelter of justice. If we now give up the last land, the cattle will have to be pastured on sand. The simple people are stunned . . .

UNIT 2 – H

Kazakhs, now where is the land on which you have lived since the Kazakh tribe was formed? They drove you off and put the land under the Russian settlements . . . Only the salt lakes and waterless plain, useless for agriculture, are left to us. (Allworth “Focus” 1994: 411-412).

1. Which social class among the Kazakhs does the poem call into action? 2. List two ways in which the poet feels that Kazakh culture will be lost.

3. Why is land so important to the Kazakh?

158

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 5: THE COMMUNIST REVOLUTION AND CENTRAL ASIA* It was the second Russian Revolution of 1917, the Bolshevik one of October/November, that seemed to promise true liberation . . . of all the subject peoples of the former Tsarist empire . . . This was explicitly stated in two proclamations . . . the second addressed itself specifically to the Muslims and read:

To All Muslim Workers of Russia and the Orient Comrades! Brothers! . . . The world of arbitrariness and oppression is living its last days. A new world, the world of workers who have liberated themselves, is being born. . . . Muslims of Russia . . . all you whose mosques and places of worship have been trampled on by the tsars and oppressors of Russia! From now on your beliefs and customs, your national and cultural institutions are being declared free and inviolable. . . . Muslims of Russia! Muslims of the Orient! We expect your support and sympathy toward a rebirth of the world! (Soucek 2000: 211).

1. How would Muslims benefit from the 1917 Russian Revolution?

UNIT 2 – H

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

159

DOCUMENT 6: MUKHTAR AUEZ-ULI Auez-uli (on the right in the photo, below) is one of the major Kazakh writers of the twentieth century. He was condemned as a “counterrevolutionary” and “political enemy” during the 1930s, when Kazakhstan was part of Soviet Russia under Stalin. A Photo of Mukhtar Auez-uli (1897-1961).

(Source: Welcome to Kazakhstan http://www.kz/eng/auezov/auezov1.html)

Auez-ali was the son of a nomad. As a six-year-old boy living in his grandfather’s yurt (like the one in the photo, below), he saw writing for the ﬁrst time and “was amazed at the fact that songs sung by adults and children could be written on paper” Yurts On The Steppes Of Central Asia. A Yurt Is A Circular Domed Tent Made Of Felt Or Skins.

UNIT 2 – H

(Source: Cressey 1934: 255)

1. What evidence of cultural diffusion (clothes, transportation, etc.) do you see in the above photo? 2. Why would the poet be a danger to Stalinist Russia?

160

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 7: THE U.S.S.R. AND CENTRAL ASIA Of all the numerous problems that Central Asia and Kazakhstan are facing now, the most important one remains their underdevelopment. Modernization was pursued in this area with minimal participation by the native population, and none of its processes—industrialization, urbanization, the demographic revolution, the revolution in education, and occupational mobility—were fully implemented there. Limited industrialization was accompanied not so much by the creation of an indigenous working class as by the attraction of a work force from the European parts of the U.S.S.R. During the construction of industrial complexes neither local needs nor local traditions were taken into account. As a result, at the end of the Soviet period, the area contained large heavy industry enterprises, even entire cities, with the indigenous population comprising the minority and industrial revenues never reaching the local budget. . . . Soviet authorities had pumped oil there (Kazakhstan) for decades and, in order not to build schools, hospitals, and day-care centers, preferred to bring in temporary workers from the North Caucasus. Every quarter planes brought in a new shift of twelve thousand people. These shifts included not only skilled workers, but also secretaries, cooks, and even office cleaners (Khazanov, “Underdevelopment” 1998: 144-145).

1. How did the Russians make sure the Kazakhs would remain underdeveloped?

DOCUMENT 8: GLASNOST AND CENTRAL ASIA . . . by the time of the Bolshevik revolution, Central Asia, including the Kazakh lands, was predominantly Muslim, and the Soviet regime attacked religion in order to assimilate the various nationalities to the new Soviet political order. Not only was separation of church and state proclaimed, but independent religious organizations were practically eliminated, . . . mosques were closed, and Muslims courts and schools virtually disappeared. The glasnost policies of the late 1980s provided an opening for peoples all over the Soviet empire to express an interest in the language, customs, and religion of their past. In Kazakhstan, the rights of the . . . nationality have been receiving long overdue attention; a strong movement to revitalize the Kazakh language has developed, and numerous historical and literary associations have formed with the aim of educating the public about little-known Kazakh writers and political ﬁgures, restoring Kazakh cultural monuments, and rehabilitating victims of Stalinist repressions. At the same time, Kazakhstan has witnessed an increase in mosque attendance and the visibility of religious activities (Altoma 1998: 166).

UNIT 2 – H

1. In what way did the Soviet regime try to destroy Kazakh culture? 2. What affect did glasnost have on Kazakhstan?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

161

DOCUMENT 9: RETURNING HOME Just as the history of the Silk Roads is the history of the movement of ideas and goods, the history of Central Asia is the history of the movement of peoples. This is true of both the past and modern times. More than four million Kazakhs live outside the borders of Kazakhstan. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan became an independent country. This encouraged many Kazakhs to return home.

. . . Many Kazakhs left their homeland because of repression during the Soviet period. But some simply found themselves on the wrong side of the border . . . When the borders were drawn [by the Soviets], some ended up in different republics, notably Uzbekistan, where 1.7 million still live. Another 1.5 million are in China and 740,000 in Russia. Most are in areas close to what is today Kazakhstan. The urge to return is not stimulated only by the desire to live in a Kazakh state. Kazakhs in China are increasingly subject to that country’s ﬁerce assimilation policy, which threatens any desire to preserve a different culture or language. Yet Kazakhs arriving from China and Mongolia speak the Kazakh language better than many Kazakhs in Kazakhstan. Seventy years of Soviet rule and enforced use of Russian have taken their toll. Only about sixty percent of the . . . Kazakh population can speak its own language, and even many of these people use Russian words that have become part of the national vocabulary (Economist 1999: 36).

1. Why were so many Kazakhs living in Uzbekistan?

2. What is one problem faced by the Kazakhs living in China?

3. Why do only sixty percent of Kazakhs speak their native language?

UNIT 2 – H

162

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Vocabulary Arbitrariness: The use of power without limits. Ascendancy: The state of being dominant. Assimilation: Process of being absorbed into a culture. Bolsheviks: The revolutionary communists who seized power in Russia in 1917. Caucasus: The mountain range stretching between the Black and Caspian seas. Central Asia: Region consisting of Xinjiang (China’s largest province), and five independent states that were formerly part of the Soviet Union: Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan. Cereals: Grains such as rice and wheat. Colonialism: Control by one power over an area or people. Counterrevolutionary: A movement against revolutionary trends. Demographic: Having to do with the study of population. Explicitly: Fully and specifically, stated without vagueness. Expropriating: Depriving someone of rights or possessions. Glasnost: Soviet policy (1986) permitting open discussion of political and social issues and freer circulation of news and information. Implement: To put into effect. Indigenous: Born or produced naturally in a country or region. Inviolable: To be free from assault or trespass. Monoculture: Growth or cultivation of a single crop.

UNIT 2 – H

Turbulent: To be in a state of unrest. Turkistanis: People of Turkestan, another name for Central Asia

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

163

Unit I

PERSIA AND THE EAST-WEST FLOW OF GOODS ON THE SILK ROADS

Essential Question: What role does Iran play in the cross-cultural connections made possible by the Silk Roads? Learning Experience: Students will analyze how the rise and fall of empires affected Silk Road trade. They will also examine cultural communication between Iran and China. Anticipatory Set: Look in your room, in your dresser drawers, in your closets—how many things are made outside the U.S.? What conditions make global trade possible? How does such exchange inﬂuence our attitudes about the world? Context: Iranians call their country “Iran,” meaning, “Land of the Aryans.” The Aryans were a people who migrated to northern India and Iran during the second millennium BCE. “Persia” comes from “Persis” or “Parsa,” a region in southern Iran. This is the name the ancient Greeks and other westerners used for the whole of Iran.

Iran, twice the size of Texas and two-thirds desert and mountains, occupies a unique place between East and West (Map A and Map K). Consequently, for centuries it was a conduit for the exchange of goods and ideas between China and the Middle East and Europe. This unit discusses Iran-China cultural exchange in the context of the rise and fall of empires between the second BCE and the eighth century CE. It focuses on the last two Persian dynasties before the rise of Islam and the ﬁrst two Chinese imperial dynasties: Persia

China

Parthian Empire1 (227 BCE-224 CE)

Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE)

(See Document 2)

(See Document 3)

• At its height, the Parthian empire controlled Iran, most of the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia. The Parthians were middlemen for East-West trade and carefully controlled commerce within their empire. Chinese records say the Parthians prevented both Roman traders from crossing Iran to reach China, and Chinese from reaching Roman-controlled Syria.

UNIT 2 – I

164

• Han China’s major foreign policy problem was a nomadic people living along its northern frontiers called the Xiongnu. The early Silk Road was closely connected to Han foreign policy. In 139 BCE the soldier/explorer Zhang Qian went west to seek allies against the Xiongnu. He returned with the first direct news about regions west of China. Han expansion in these “Western Regions” was the beginning of the Silk Road.

Also see “Document 2: The Roman Empire, Parthian Iran, and Han Dynasty China.”

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Sasanian Empire (224-651)

Period of Disunion (3rd-6th centuries)

(See Document 5)

(See Document 4)

• The Sasanids were one of the most powerful empires to rule the Iranian plateau and eastern part of the Fertile Crescent. Sasanian textiles and silver were imported all over Asia. In China, weavers and silversmiths adopted Sasanian vessel shapes and decoration. The imperial court in Japan also treasured Sasanian silver, textiles, and glassware. This shallow bowl was probably used for drinking wine.

• One of the most violent eras in Chinese history. Except for a brief period at the end of the third century, China wouldn’t be united again until 581. From the early 3rd century, north China was ruled by non-Chinese and the south was governed by refugees from the north. During the third and fourth centuries, Buddhism began to spread in both north and south China. The Silk Road was the avenue by which Buddhist missionaries entered China. The absence of a strong central government in China made trade more difficult and dangerous.

Sui Dynasty (589-618) • The short-lived Sui unify China.

Sasanian Bowl

The Sasanians were destroyed by the rise of Islam in the early seventh century. By 651, the Arab conquest of Iran was complete. The last Sasanian emperor sought refuge in Tang China.

Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) • The Abbasids were the second Islamic dynasty. They ruled from their capital at Baghdad, the largest city in the world outside China. The Abbasid caliphate is often referred to as Islam’s “Golden Age.” By the early tenth century the Abbasid empire had broken up into various independent regimes. Also, their Central Asian domains were continually threatened by nomad invaders.

Tang Dynasty (618-907) (See Documents 5, 6, and 7) • Perhaps the most cosmopolitan period in China’s history. Arabs, Persians, Indians, Turks, Syrians, and Tibetans, Koreans, and Japanese traveled to China to live, conduct business, and study. Tang was a period when the Chinese upper classes were highly receptive to foreign dress, customs, arts, music, and so forth. Up until the mid-eighth century, Tang expansion into Central Asia caused Silk Road trade to flourish. The Chinese established military garrisons and made alliances with small oasis kingdoms. The rise of Islam and internal rebellion against the dynasty destroyed China’s ability to control the region.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

UNIT 2 – I

165

Although Silk Road trade didn’t vanish during the Period of Disunion between Han and Tang, it was difficult and dangerous (see Document 4). Why were strong empires necessary beneﬁcial to trade and cultural exchange? Formidable obstacles had traditionally confronted long-distance trade across Eurasia. The caravan trade required an enormous investment of time and capital. . . . . . Since the caravans needed to obtain supplies and rest their animals en route, a series of oases, free from bandit harassment, were essential . . . The major Chinese and Persian dynasties sought to and at times actually did rule these areas, and it is no accident that the volume of trade during these periods was greater than at any other time (Rossabi 1990: 352, 353). Persians and people of Persian origin such as the Sogdians2 were major players in Silk Road trade. Document 4, a letter from a Sogdian merchant, provides a vivid picture of trade during China’s violent Period of Disunion. Another empire that affected Silk Roads trade was that of the Kushans, who controlled parts of northwest India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and the southern routes of the Silk Road across the Tarim basin from roughly the second century BCE to the third century CE. Kushan control of the Silk Roads facilitated the spread of Buddhism into China. In Tang dynasty China (618-907 CE), Iranian merchants were so common that if you wanted to poke fun at a rich man who claimed he had no money, you might say he was like a “poor Persian” (Schafer 1951: 410). The ﬂow of goods across the Iranian plateau left its mark on Persia from very early times. The Greek historian Herodotus (c. 430 BCE) says that There is no nation which so readily adopts foreign customs as the Persians. Thus, they have taken the dress of the Medes,3 considering it superior to their own; and in war they wear the Egyptian breastplate. As soon as they hear of any luxury, they instantly make it their own . . . With the Islamic conquests and the decline of the Tang dynasty in the mid-eighth century, China was no longer able to maintain an imperial presence in Central Asia. The exchange of ideas and goods between Iran and China wouldn’t reach another highpoint until the Mongol conquests of the fourteenth century. At that time, it became possible to travel (as Marco Polo did) from the Mediterranean to the China Sea on a Mongol passport. From the Han dynasty to Mongol-ruled China encompasses ﬁfteen hundred years. During much of this time, the Iran-China connection was central to . . . the exchange of spiritual and material culture between East and West . . . [and] arguably the longest sustained example of intercultural communication in world history (Allsen 2001: 8). Rationale: Pre-modern Persia and China were linked by trade along the Silk Road. In learning about their interactions, students will come to understand cultural exchange and its relation to geography and the politics of empire. Time: One or two class sessions. UNIT 2 – I

Instructional Resources: Map A and Map C (You need to locate Iran and add it to Map C); seven document-based questions and an essay assignment based on the questions. 2

166

The Sogdians were a people of Iranian origin who came from Central Asia. Between the fourth and ninth centuries CE they were probably the most important Silk Road merchants. The Medes were a tribe that settled in Iran during the second millennium BCE.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure:

•

Using the maps discuss Iran’s geographical position in Eurasia and its signiﬁcance in trade and cultural exchange.

•

Part A: Divide the class into groups. This lesson uses the jigsaw method, so students are ﬁrst divided into base groups. All groups receive all documents in order to be (1) prepared when, as “experts,” they enter their second groups, and (2) to be able to write the essay comprising Part B of this unit.

All students should read the ﬁrst and seventh documents —“Persia Before the Silk Road,” and “The Decline of the Tang and the Rise of Islam”—and answer the questions. The other documents will be done by the base groups as follows: Group A 2. “The Roman Empire, Parthian Iran, and Han Dynasty China” Group B 3. “Emperor Wu’s Foreign Policy” 4. “A Sogdian Merchant’s Letter (c. 313-314 CE)” Group C 5. “Persian Art Styles Travel to China” 6. “Iranian Dancing Girls at the Chinese Court” Students should read the documents, discuss them with their fellow group members, and answer the questions. They should be prepared to discuss the document’s contents with the whole class. •

Rearrange the class into groups of experts. Every student is an “expert” on the documents studied in the base group. Groups should discuss all the documents in terms of the essential question.

Whole Group Reflection: Have students choose a speaker from each group to present their reports and answer the essential question: “What role did Iran play in the cross-cultural connections made possible by the Silk Road?” Instructional Modification: The teacher should assign documents to students based on their levels of reading and comprehension. Application: For homework, students will write the Part B essay. UNIT 2 – I

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

167

PART A These questions are designed to test your ability to work with historical documents. Some of these documents have been edited for the purposes of this question. As you analyze them, take into account both the source of each and any point of view that may be presented.

DOCUMENT 1: PERSIA BEFORE THE SILK ROADS* The Achaemenid dynasty (530-354 BCE) ruled over a multiethnic empire that covered the Middle East, Egypt, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia. Because they had conquered so many kingdoms, their kings called themselves “King of Kings.” Later Persian dynasties looked back at this period as the greatest in the country’s history. Since the ancient Greeks fought a series of wars against Achaemenid Persia, the historian Herodotus (484?-424 BCE) had a lot to say about Persians and the Persian empire. Even before the Silk Roads, Iran’s central geographical position made it a crossroads for cultural diffusion: There is no nation which so readily adopts foreign customs as the Persians. Thus, they have taken the dress of the Medes [a tribe that settled in Iran in the second millennium BCE], considering it superior to their own; and in war they wear the Egyptian breastplate. As soon as they hear of any luxury, they instantly make it their own . . .

1. Give one geographic and one cultural reason why the Persians adopted so many foreign things.

UNIT 2 – I

168

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 2: THE ROMAN EMPIRE, PARTHIAN IRAN, AND HAN DYNASTY CHINA The early success of the Silk Roads for the most part depended on three empires: the Chinese Han dynasty, the Iranian Parthian dynasty, and the Roman Empire. The Parthians were the middlemen in trade between China and Rome. When Parthians and Chinese controlled the oasis states and towns of Central Asia, trade went forward without interruption. From the time of the first Roman emperor (Augustus, r. 27 BCE-14 CE), Rome always had silk. This table shows some of the historical factors that shaped early trade between these four empires.

ROMANS (27 BCE-476 CE)

PARTHIANS (247 BCE-224 CE)

27 BCE-180 CE The Roman Empire was at peace from Scotland to the border of Iran.

The Kushans controlled parts of northwest India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and the southern routes of the Silk Road across the Tarim basin.

During the reign of the first emperor, Augustus (27 BCE14 CE), the long-distance silk trade with China greatly increased. Some Roman writers criticized the silk trade because it caused gold and silver to flow out of the empire; others criticized the way silk clothing revealed a woman’s body.

Kushan control of the Silk Road facilitated the spread of Buddhism to China. At its height, the Parthians controlled Iran, most of the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia. 1st century BCE Parthia sent envoys to the Rome as well as to emperor Wu of the Han dynasty. Contemporary accounts say that the Parthians carefully controlled commerce in their domains. They prevented Romans from crossing Iran to reach China, and Chinese from reaching Roman-controlled Syria.

http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/ash/ne ws/news035.html

180 With the death of the emperor Marcus Aurelius, government became dominated by military strongmen. Historians mark the decline of Rome from this point in time. 235-284 Twenty-six military dictators in turn seized power from one another.

KUSHANS (C. 2ND CENTURY BCE-3RD CENTURY CE)

Gandhara, a region in northwest Pakistan formerly occupied by Alexander the Great’s successors, is part of the Kushan empire. Consequently, Kushan art is influenced by Greek and Roman myths and art styles. The first images of the Buddha are produced in the Kushan period.

HAN DYNASTY (202 BCE-220 CE) The Han dynasty extended China’s frontiers to what is now northern Vietnam and northern Korea. Han’s major foreign policy problem was the Xiongnu, a nomadic people living along its northern frontiers. 140-87 BCE Reign of emperor Wu. His aggressive policies sought to destroy the Xiongnu. 121-101 BCE Han armies campaigned in the “Western Regions.”—modern Gansu and Xinjiang provinces. 139 BCE Emperor Wu sent Zhang Qian west to seek allies against the Xiongnu. He returned with the first direct news of the regions west of China.

Chinese merchants entering Parthia could go no further than the city of Merv (now Mary in Turkmenistan) to sell their silk. The border between Rome and Parthia was the Euphrates river. Relations between the two empires were unstable: during the second and third centuries, the Romans mounted major campaigns against the Parthians. 224 A governor revolted against a royal house weakened by internal struggles and opposition from powerful nobles. He established the Sasanian dynasty that ruled Iran until the Islamic conquest in 641.

http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam/ kushan1.html

http://www.calgarycoin.com/cast1.htm

106 BCE The first Chinese caravan is thought to have entered Parthian territory. In the Parthian city of Merv, the Chinese traded silk for gold and silver, coral, glassware, gold-embroidered rugs, cloth, precious stones, and medicines. 90-130 China controls the Tarim Basin.

UNIT 2 – I

220 CE Fall of the Han. Power of the court was weakened by political corruption, rebellion, famine, and natural disasters. Regional warlords became increasingly more powerful.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

169

DOCUMENT 2: THE ROMAN EMPIRE, PARTHIAN IRAN, AND HAN DYNASTY CHINA (continued from the previous page.)

1. Describe how the Parthians and Kushans acted as middlemen.

2. Did all Romans like silk? Why or why not?

3. Give two examples of how either war or peace affected Silk Road trade.

UNIT 2 – I

170

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 3: RETURNING HOME The Silk Roads developed in part as a response to China’s need to destroy its number one enemy, the Xiongnu. As a result of Emperor Wu’s (r. 140-87 BCE) aggressive foreign policy, China expanded into Central Asia and merchants were more easily able to travel back and forth between China and Iran.

The ﬁrst confederation of nomadic tribes in Inner Asia was formed by the Xiongnu in the late third century BCE . . . The early Han emperors tried conciliatory policies, wooing the Xiongnu leaders with generous gifts, including silk, rice, cash, and even imperial princesses as brides. Critics of these policies feared that they merely strengthened the enemy; and indeed, in 166 BCE, 140,000 horsem*n raided deep into China, reaching a point less than 100 miles from the capital. Emperor Wu took the offensive. He sent 300,000 troops far into Xiongnu territory in 133 BCE. Subsequent expeditions, such as those in 124, 123, and 119 BCE, often involved over 100,000 men. . . . Emperor Wu turned his attention to Central Asia as well, in part to ﬁnd allies, in part to improve the supply of horses to the army. In 139 BCE, he sent one of his officials, Zhang Qian, west in search of allies to ﬁght against the Xiongnu. Captured and kept prisoner for ten years, Zhang eventually escaped and made his way to Bactria and Ferghana, returning in 126 BCE . . . In 101 BCE, after three years’ effort, a Chinese army made its way beyond the Pamir Mountains to defeat Ferghana, seize large numbers of its excellent horses, and gain recognition of Chinese overlordship (Ebrey 1996: 68, 69).

Places and Place Names Bactria is in modern northeast Afghanistan. Ferghana is located in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyztan. Pamirs is located mainly in modern Tajikistan. They form a hub from which five great mountain ranges, including the Himalayas, extend.

1. How did Chinese foreign policy help create the Silk Roads?

UNIT 2 – I

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

171

DOCUMENT 4: A SOGDIAN MERCHANT ’S LETTER (C. 313-314 CE)* Although trade continued along the Silk Roads during periods in which Persia and/or China weren’t strong and stable, the trade was much more difficult and dangerous. This letter was written in the fourth century CE. The period between the early third and late sixth centuries was a violent time when China was politically divided: non-Chinese peoples ruled the north, and Chinese refugees controlled the south. Sometimes called the Period of Disunion, China wouldn’t be united under a powerful native dynasty again until 589. The Sogdians were a people of Iranian origin who came from Central Asia. Between the fourth and ninth centuries CE they were probably the most important merchants trading along the Silk Road. The city of Luoyang mentioned at the letter’s beginning is the capital of the defeated Chinese dynasty, sacked by invaders in 311. The original documents are in poor condition. Words and letters in brackets [ . . . ] have been added by the translator. Question marks in parentheses (?) indicate that the meaning of the text is uncertain.

And sirs, the last emperor, so they say, ﬂed from Luoyang because of the famine, and ﬁre was set to his palace and to the city, and the palace was burnt and the city [destroyed]. Luoyang (is) no more . . . And, sirs, if I were to write to you everything (about) how China has fared, (it would be) beyond (?) grief: there is no proﬁt for you to gain therefrom. And sirs, it is eight years since I sent Saghrak and Farn-Aghat “inside” [China] and it is three years since I received a reply from there. They were well . . . , (but) now, since the last evil occurred, I do [not] receive a reply from there (about) how they have fared. Moreover, four years ago I sent another man named Artikhu-vandak. When the caravan departed from Guzang, Wakhush[akk] the . . . was there, and when they reached Luoyang, bo[th the . . . ] and the Indians and the Sogdians there had all died of starvation (Sims-Williams 2001).

1. In one sentence describe the general tone of this letter.

2. What happened to the Sogdian merchants inside China?

UNIT 2 – I

172

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 5: PERSIAN ART STYLES TRAVEL TO CHINA A. Bowl

The Sasanian empire (224-651 CE) was one of the most powerful and belligerent regimes ever to control the Iranian plateau and eastern part of the Fertile Crescent (Farmer 1986: 180). Sasanian textiles and silver were imported all over Asia. In China, weavers and silversmiths adopted Sasanian vessel shapes and decoration. The imperial court in Japan also treasured Sasanian silver, textiles, and glassware. This shallow bowl was probably used for drinking wine.

(Source: Seattle Art Museum, Charles E. Merrill Trust)

Iran, Sasanian Dynasty, 5-6th Century CE, Silver, Seattle Art Museum

B. Leaf-shaped Dish

The Sui dynasty (589-618) uniﬁed China after more than three centuries of political division. Its successor, the Tang (618-907), was able to extend its power into Central Asia and enable Silk Road trade to ﬂourish for almost 150 years.

The Tang was one of the most brilliant periods in Chinese history. Its capital at Chang’an was host to Arabs, Persians, Indians, Turks, Syrians, and Tibetans, as well as Koreans and Japanese. Many Persian merchants also lived and worked in China’s southeastern seaports. The Silk Road brought luxury goods from western Asia, particularly Iran, into China.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/06/eac/ho_1974.268.11.htm

. . . the period from the ﬁfth century CE [onward] was one of the principal times in Chinese history when . . . the decorative arts, especially utensils for eating and drinking, were radically altered in shape, texture and decoration by the introduction of foreign customs and motifs (Rawson 1992: 265). China, Tang Dnasty, Late 7th - Erly 8th CE Silver with Parcel Gilding The Metropolitan Museum of Art

1. What aspect of Tang dynasty history provided the conditions for (A) to influence Chinese silversmiths? UNIT 2 – I

2. Compare (A) and (B). What decorative motif (a motif is an individual element in a design) do the two share?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

173

DOCUMENT 6: IRANIAN DANCING GIRLS AT THE CHINESE COURT* Chinese records tell us that Iranian dancers were sent to the Tang court several times during the eighth century CE. The women were from Sogdiana in Central Asia. The Sogdians were a people of Iranian origin. During the Tang, foreign (particularly Central Asian) music, dance, styles of art, food, clothing, and cosmetics were eagerly adopted by the Chinese upper classes. This passage is from a poem by Bo Juyi (772-846 CE), one of the most famous poets of the Tang dynasty.

1 3 5 7 9

Iranian whirling girl, Iranian whirling girl— Her heart answers to the strings, Her hands answer to the drums. At the sound of the strings and drums, she raises her arms, Like swirling snowﬂakes tossed about, she turns in a whirling dance. Whirling to the left, turning to the right, she never feels exhausted, A thousand rounds, ten thousand circuits—it never seems to end. Among men and living creatures, she is peerless; Compared to her, the wheels of a racing chariot revolve slowly and a whirlwind is sluggish (Mair 1994: 486).

1. What kinds of instruments accompany the dancers? 2. What impression do the “swirling snowflakes” of line 5 give about the dancers? 3. Why does the poet compare the dancers to chariot wheels and a whirlwind (line 9)?

DOCUMENT 7: THE DECLINE OF THE TANG AND THE RISE OF ISLAM Two events destroyed Chinese power in Central Asia: (1) the rise of Islam, and (2) the An Lushan rebellion (755-763). An Lushan was a non-Chinese general whose army guarded China’s northern frontier. In 755 he rebelled against the court. Although eventually defeated, the An Lushan rebellion marked the beginning of the dynasty’s decline as other warlords rose in the provinces and competed with the central government for power. For the rest of the Tang period, there was no outward expansion of Chinese power.

UNIT

Also, by the mid-eighth century, Islam had become the dominant power from North Africa to the borders of India. In 751, a Tang army was defeated by the Arabs at the Battle of the Talas River in Central Asia. Chinese control over Central Asia was now a thing of the past. Commercial and cultural exchange between China and Iran wouldn’t reach ﬂourish again until the establishment of the Mongol empire in the fourteenth century. At that time it was possible to travel (as Marco Polo did) from the Mediterranean to the China Sea on a Mongol passport.

2 – I

1. How did domestic problems prevent an aggressive Chinese foreign policy?

174

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

PART B ESSAY Directions: Write a well-organized essay that includes an introduction, several paragraphs, and a conclusion. Use evidence from at least two documents to support your response. Include additional related information. Historical Context: Iran played a vital role between East and West for many centuries. Its central position on the Eurasian continent made it a middleman for trade along the Silk Road. Iran-China trade and cultural exchange rose and fell with the rise and fall of empires. The Parthian and Sasanian dynasties in Iran and the Han and Tang dynasties in China created political and economic conditions beneﬁcial to the exchange of goods on the Silk Roads. Task: Using information from the documents and your knowledge of global history, write an essay in which you

• • • •

Describe why Iran has served as an intermediary between East and West; Give two examples of cultural interchange between Iran and China; Describe two political factors that could encourage trade; Describe two political factors that could discourage trade.

UNIT 2 – I

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 2. Ethnic Relations and Political History Along The Silk Roads

175

3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads Unit J EAST-WEST EXCHANGE: SILK, PAPER, PORCELAIN Unit K WEST-EAST EXCHANGE: ASTRONOMY Unit L THE SILK ROADS YESTERDAY, TODAY, AND TOMORROW

Unit M TWO LEGENDARY TRAVELERS: MARCO POLO AND IBN BATTUTA

Unit J

EAST-WEST EXCHANGE: SILK, PAPER, PORCELAIN

UNIT 3 – J

Essential Question: How did the exchange of technology from China along the Silk Roads affect Persia, the Middle East, and Europe? Anticipatory Set: Looking around you, what things would make your life different if you had to live without them? How different would your life be, for instance, without paper? Learning Experience: What was the importance of East-West cultural exchange? Paper, silk, and porcelain were all invented in China and exported to the West. Students will evaluate the importance of these three products as elements in cultural diffusion along the Silk Roads Context: Over the centuries, the Silk Roads were an important conduit for the diffusion of products and technologies from China to the West. Silk, paper, and porcelain were three of the most sophisticated products of pre-modern technology. Silk and porcelain were luxuries whose beauty delighted people all over the world; paper was a material that changed the world.

PAPER Before the invention of paper, the Chinese wrote on carefully prepared strips of wood and pieces of silk. They used brushes made of animal hair and ink made from pine soot. Paper came into use as early as the second and ﬁrst centuries BCE, at the same time that the Chinese bureaucratic state was expanding and maturing under the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220C CE). Paper was an ideal medium for the large numbers of documents produced by China’s government. In 105 CE, the invention of paper was officially reported to the Chinese throne. In reality, it had been in use long before that. Centuries later, paper reached western Asia and Europe. Even today, in a world increasingly dominated by electronic/digital technology, it’s almost impossible to live without paper.

SILK By the Shang dynasty (c. 1550-1050 BCE) sericulture—the raising of silkworms and the production of silk—had developed to a very high degree. The silkworm had become a true domestic animal, bred for a variety of desirable characteristics; the typical Chinese farmstead included not only ﬁelds for grain and vegetables, but also a grove of mulberry trees, the leaves of which are the sole food of the silkworm caterpillar. Ordinary peasant women were expert in the special techniques associated with silk weaving; silk was produced in quantity and worn, at least on some occasions, by a wide range of people, not just the aristocracy (Steele 1999: 21-22). The silks that came from China amazed the upper classes of the Roman Empire. They came to call China “Serica,” the “land of silk.” Not everyone, however, approved of the beautiful fabric:

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

179

The sensuous, expensive material predictably aroused the ire of moralists. Seneca,1 for example, was disgusted by the gauze-like transparency of fashionable silk textiles: “I see silken clothes, if you can call them clothes at all, that in no degree afford protection either to the body or to the modesty of the wearer, and clad in which no woman could honestly swear she is not naked” (Steele 1999: 71).

UNIT 3 – J

It was only in the early Middle Ages that silk began to be manufactured in the West.2

PORCELAIN The Chinese also invented porcelain. For centuries, it was exported by sea and by land to Asia and Europe: The Central Asians, the Persians, and the peoples of the Middle East prized Ming [1368-1644 CE] porcelains . . . The Persian ruler Shah Abbas (r. 1587-1629) constructed a China house for his magniﬁcent Chinese wares. The Topkapi museum in Istanbul houses over eight thousand Song [960-1279 CE] and Ming porcelains. Some of the Central Asian tribes believed that Chinese porcelains possessed supernatural powers. In Persian miniature paintings of the ﬁfteenth century, “there is hardly a manuscript in which [Chinese] blue and white vessels are not depicted” (Rossabi 1975: 77). Chinese porcelain became so common in European homes that “china” became the generic name for all ﬁne ceramics. Rationale: Using cooperative learning groups, students will research the history and development of silk, paper, and porcelain. Time: One forty-minute lesson. Instructional Resources: Documents on paper, silk, and porcelain. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: The class is divided up into six merchant/adviser groups. Students have been selected by the emperor of China to conduct trade with the West via a Silk Roads caravan. Each group will consist of a chief merchant and his assistants. There will be two groups for porcelain, two for silk, and two for paper.

Using the resource materials below, each assistant will specialize in one aspect of the product. He or she will prepare a script to advise the chief merchant in the marketplace. Topics to be addressed are (1) origin of the product; (2) its uses; (3) its importance; (4) how it is made; (5) how it can be advertised; and, (6) desirability of ownership. Whole Group Reflection: After research and “advising” is complete, the chief merchants will present their wares and purchases in the classroom marketplace during a debrieﬁng session.

The discussion should generate a set of notes on the blackboard. Students will consider the value of China’s contributions.

1 2

180

Leading Roman statesman and playwright of the first century CE. For a brief “History of Silk,” see: http://www.silk-road.com/toc/index.html.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

Instructional Modification: Consideration should be taken regarding academic levels in choosing group members and resource materials. Also, the lesson may be expanded into two sessions: groups may devote one day to research and preparation of materials, and one day to present and discuss them in class.

UNIT 3 – J

Make Your Own Paper The basics of the papermaking process are rather simple. Using the instructions on either of these websites, students can make their own paper. http://www.wipapercouncil.org/makepaper.htm http://www.bowater.com/paper.html

Application: Describe one scientiﬁc or technological innovation of the past year that you have used. Why do you value this item?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

181

DOCUMENT 1: WHAT WAS USED BEFORE PAPER? UNIT 3 – J

Pre-modern cultures that possessed writing used different materials to record information. Compared to paper, what are the disadvantages of these earlier materials?

•

The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets with a pointed wooden stylus.

•

The ancient Egyptians used marsh grass called papyrus. Its stem provided thin strips that could be layered and pounded into thin sheets. These were polished smooth with a stone, bone, or shell. Lightweight and portable, papyrus became the writing medium of choice for the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.

• Parchment—made from the skins of sheep, goats, and calves—was the favored writing material in medieval Europe until paper was introduced around the twelfth century. A ﬁner, more pliable kind of parchment was called “vellum.” Although parchment was expensive to make, compared to papyrus it was a better writing material since it was much easier to write on, both sides could be used, and mistakes could be scraped off.

182

•

In India and Southeast Asia the leaves of special trees were used to record religious texts, biographical information, and literature. The leaves were trimmed, ﬂattened, and polished smooth with sand to provide a workable surface.

•

Tree bark was a favored material in some regions: In the Himalayas and the Americas, people used it in sheets and rolls while Paciﬁc cultures made a cloth from it.

•

Before the invention of paper, the Chinese wrote on thin strips of wood as well as rolls of silk. They used brushes made of animal hair and ink made from pine soot.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 2: PAPER AND PAPERMAKING IN CHINA UNIT

A Paper Fragment from the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 CE)

(Source: Cultural Relics Publishing House, Chinese Graphic Arts News http://www.cgan.com/english/english/cpg/engcp06.htm)

3 – J

Although 105 CE is the traditional date given for the invention of paper by a man named Cai Lun, there is archeological and literary evidence for its use several centuries earlier. A Chinese story from about 100 BCE records the use of ancient “Kleenex tissue”: a guardsman suggests to a prince that he cover his nose with a thin piece of paper. Archeologists have also found fragments of paper dating from the second and ﬁrst centuries BCE. Because silk was expensive and bamboo was heavy, paper became the preferred writing material (Bloom 2001: 32, 33).

It was said that Cai Lun thought of using tree bark, hemp, rags, and old ﬁsh nets to replace bamboo and silk. Experimenting with a variety of materials, he reﬁned the process of pulverizing plant ﬁbers until each ﬁlament was completely separate. These individual ﬁbers were mixed with water in a large vat. Next, a screen was submerged in the vat and lifted up through the water, catching the ﬁbers on its surface. When dry, this layer of intertwined ﬁbers became a sheet of paper. Although today’s manufacture of paper is totally mechanized, the basic process remains the same. Paper came into use around the same time that the Chinese imperial state was expanding and developing. It was an ideal medium for the large numbers of documents produced by China’s bureaucratic government.

DOCUMENT 3: PAPER SPREADS WESTWARD Some Arabic sources say that after an Arab army defeated the Chinese at the battle of the Talas River in 751, captured artisans transmitted their papermaking skills to the Arabs. Like the story of Cai Lun and the invention of paper (above), this story is more legend than history. Papermaking would have been practiced throughout Central Asia by the eighth century CE. Well before the Muslim conquest, Buddhist monks brought papermaking to the region. Papermaking spread to Baghdad in modern day Iraq in the eighth century. From there it reached Syria, Egypt, and Morocco by the tenth century CE. It took nearly ﬁve hundred years for papermaking to reach Europe from Central Asia. Paper was exported from the Middle East to Byzantium and other parts of Europe beginning in the tenth and eleventh centuries. It reached Spain in the twelfth century. At ﬁrst, paper wasn’t accepted in the Christian world because it came from Islam. In 1221, the Holy Roman Emperor decreed that all official documents on paper were invalid. Perhaps the interests of wealthy landowners, who raised sheep and cattle for parchment and vellum, played a role in this decree. By the fourteenth century, a number of European countries had paper mills. The invention of the printing press in the mid-1400s increased the demand for paper in Europe.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

183

DOCUMENT 4: SILK AND SERICULTURE UNIT 3 – J

No one really knows the origins of silk. It is said that around 2700 BCE, China’s mythical Yellow Emperor directed his wife to examine the silkworm and test the practicality of using its thread. She not only discovered how to raise silkworms, but also how to reel the thread from their cocoons and make silk clothing. Sericulture in China, however, is older than this legendary account. Archeological evidence suggests that the Chinese made silk as early as the ﬁfth or fourth millennium CE. By the Shang dynasty (c. 1550-1050 BCE), sericulture—the raising of silkworms and the production of silk—had developed to a very high degree. The silkworm had become a true domestic animal, bred for a variety of desirable characteristics; the typical Chinese farmstead included not only ﬁelds for grain and vegetables, but also a grove of mulberry trees, the leaves of which are the sole food of the silkworm caterpillar. Ordinary peasant women were expert in the special techniques associated with silk weaving; silk was produced in quantity and worn, at least on some occasions, by a wide range of people, not just the aristocracy (Steele 1999: 21-22). The Silk Roads get its name from trade that began as early as the second century BCE, when caravans carried Chinese silk across Central Asia. Some of it eventually reached the Mediterranean, where its jewel-like shine delighted wealthy people in ancient Rome. The sensuous, expensive material predictably aroused the anger of moralists. Seneca,3 for example, was disgusted by the gauze-like transparency of fashionable silk textiles: “I see silken clothes, if you can call them clothes at all, that in no degree afford protection either to the body or to the modesty of the wearer, and clad in which no woman could honestly swear she is not naked” (Adapted from Steele 1999: 71). Eventually the Chinese lost their monopoly on silk production. Korea and Japan were making silk around 200 CE. Sericulture also traveled westward to India around 300 CE. It is said that strong demand for local supplies of raw silk encouraged the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (r. 527-565) to persuade Persian monks to go to China and smuggle out silkworms. Legend has it that the monks brought them back to Constantinople in the hollows of their bamboo canes.

184

Leading Roman statesman and playwright of the first century CE.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 5: SERICULTURE—THE MAKING OF SILK UNIT

Raw silk thread, called a “ﬁlament,” is drawn from the cocoons of several moth species. The caterpillars that spin the cocoons are commonly called “silkworms.”

3 – J

Silk production involves growing mulberry trees to provide food for the silkworms, which eat more than ﬁfty thousand times their weight in mulberry leaves. It also involves caring for the silkworm as an egg, a caterpillar, and as a chrysalis within a cocoon. The chrysalis is the ﬁnal stage before the silkworm emerges as an adult moth. The female moth lays hundreds of eggs, each about the size of a pinhead, before dying almost immediately after. The eggs are stored through the winter and allowed to hatch only the following spring. The Silkworm (Bombyx mori) Is Not a “Worm” At All. This Figure Shows the Caterpillar of a Moth Whose Cocoon is Used to Make Silk

(Source: http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/butterfly/activities/printouts/silkworm.shtml)

About four to six weeks after hatching, the caterpillars reach maximum size and begin to spin their cocoons. This takes about four days. Glands on the caterpillar’s head secrete a liquid that becomes the silk ﬁlament. Each cocoon is made of a single ﬁlament, two to three thousand feet long. In order to kill the chrysalises, the ﬁnished cocoons are either steamed, put in jars layered with salt, or boiled. The caterpillars have to be prevented from becoming full-grown moths in order to preserve the cocoon and its thread. The only moths allowed to live are those selected as breeding stock for future generations of silkworms. Each cocoon is made of a single ﬁlament two or three thousand feet long. This is called “ﬂoss,” which is twisted to make silk thread. Although the Chinese used other raw materials such as hemp to make cloth, silk was the most useful and valued fabric for many centuries. It was only with the spread of cotton production in the fourteenth and ﬁfteenth centuries that silk was eclipsed as a fabric for daily use. In his Spring Silkworms, the twentieth century writer Mao Dun (1896-1981) refers to the time when silkworms incubate as the “sacred season.” His characters call the cocoons “little darlings.” This shows not only how dependent silk farmers were on the life cycle of the silkworm, but also gives a sense of how difficult and complicated it was to raise them successfully. PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

185

DOCUMENT 6: PORCELAIN UNIT 3 – J

Made in China for Export to Europe, This Sixteenth-Century Porcelain Has the Royal Portuguese Coat of Arms Painted on It Upside Down

(Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Helena Woolworth McCann Collection, Purchase, Winfield Foundation Gift, 1961 [61.196] Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ewpor/hob_61.196.htm

Ewer Ming dynasty (1368-1644), Zhengde period (1506-21), ca. 1520 Chinese for the Portuguese market Hard paste; H. 7 3/8 in. (18.7 cm) Apocryphal mark of the Xuande period (1426-35) Helena Woolworth McCann Collection, Purchase, Winfield Foundation Gift, 1961 (61.196)

They have pottery of excellent quality, of which bowls are made as ﬁne as glass drinking cups; the sparkle of water can be seen through it, although it is pottery. So wrote an Arab merchant in the ninth century CE about early Chinese porcelain—“a hard, translucent ware fused at high temperature with the aid of feldspar [a crystalline mineral], causing it to ring when struck” (Sullivan 1984: 137). True porcelain was ﬁred at 2,200-2,500º F, a temperature high enough that the feldspar melts around the particles of clay, producing a glassy surface. Chinese porcelain became famous all over Asia and, eventually, throughout the world. As early as the ninth century, great quantities of porcelain were exported to Persia and the Middle East. In Europe, China become so closely identiﬁed with porcelain that all ﬁne ceramics came to be called “china.” European potters tried to imitate porcelain for centuries, but it wasn’t until 1575 that the Italians made the ﬁrst European porcelain. The word “porcelain” comes from the Italian word “porcellana,” a type of shell with a hard, beautifully colored surface. In the thirteenth century CE, Marco Polo used it to describe the pottery he saw in China.

186

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 6: PORCELAIN (continued from the previous page.)

UNIT 3 – J

The Chinese made porcelain in a rainbow of colors, as well as in pure white. There were many decorative techniques: patterns could be painted over a surface glaze, the surface could be molded to create raised designs, or designs could be engraved into the surface. Many traditional decorative patterns are used over and over again. A fungus called lingzhi is a symbol for long life. Bats symbolize happiness, because the Chinese character for “happiness” and for “bat” have the same sound, fu. Five red bats symbolize the Five Blessings—longevity, riches, health, love of virtue, and a good end to one’s life. Porcelain was made into bowls, plates, vases, perfume holders, pipes, snuff bottles, wrist rests (for writing), water pots, paste boxes, cups, teapots, and ﬂasks. It was also used to make images of important Buddhist, Daoist, mythological, literary, and historical ﬁgures. Although porcelain was a major part of China’s high volume maritime trade with the rest of Asia (particularly from the Song dynasty on, 960-1279 CE), the Silk Roads also served as a means of exporting ﬁne ceramics. The Central Asians, the Persians, and the peoples of the Middle East prized Ming [1368-1644 CE] porcelains . . . The Persian ruler Shah Abbas (r. 1587-1629) constructed a China house for his magniﬁcent Chinese wares. The Topkapi museum in Istanbul houses over eight thousand Song [960-1279 CE] and Ming porcelains. Some of the Central Asian tribes believed that Chinese porcelains possessed supernatural powers. In Persian miniature paintings of the ﬁfteenth century, “there is hardly a manuscript in which [Chinese] blue and white vessels are not depicted” (Rossabi 1975: 77).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

187

Unit K

WEST-EAST EXCHANGE: ASTRONOMY

Essential Questions: What was the importance of astronomy to the pre-modern Chinese state and people? How did the West-East exchange of scientiﬁc information along the Silk Roads affect China? UNIT 3 – K

Anticipatory Set: What role does astronomy play in your everyday life?1 In pre-modern times, emperors, kings, and common people thought the movements of the sun, moon, stars, and planets were related to events on earth. Because of this, they wanted to be sure that what they did—from sending armies marching to taking a bath—was in harmony with the heavens. Has this belief totally disappeared from the modern world? (Has anyone ever asked you: “Hey, what’s your sign?”). Learning Experience: Students will study pre-modern Chinese ideas on the relation of the cosmos to everyday life and the political importance of astronomy. They will look at phenomena such as eclipses and supernovae through both (modern) Western and (pre-modern) Chinese eyes. Context: Science and medicine in Islam and China were born from very different roots. Chinese science was more than a thousand years old by the time Islam spread through the Middles East in the century after Muhammad’s death (632 CE). Scientiﬁc knowledge in Islam was largely based on that of the ancient Greeks: during the eighth and ninth centuries, most important Greek scientiﬁc and medical texts had been translated into Arabic (Saliba 1994: 51). Although neither Islam nor China changed their basic understanding of the world by absorbing each other’s scientiﬁc theories, the Silk Roads allowed for exchanges of ideas and techniques. For China’s imperial government, such exchange, particularly in the ﬁeld of astronomy, was important to the survival of the state.

The movement of Arab, as well as Indian and European mathematical and astronomical knowledge to China reached only a limited audience, the emperor’s astronomy officials. Foreign techniques and data were welcome because the Chinese could use it to check their own calculations. This was politically important because It was an urgent matter of national security, as we would put it today, for the Imperial Directorate of Astronomy to be able to predict solar eclipses and other celestial events. This was because if not predicted they were ominous; that is to say, they could be interpreted (and exploited by prospective rebels) as warnings from Heaven that the virtue of the ruling house was failing (http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~nsivin/cop.html). Thus, skill in predicting heavenly phenomena was related to the emperor’s ability to remain in possession of the “Mandate of Heaven”: Chinese astronomers tried to reduce to rule as many astronomical phenomena as possible, with the ultimate aim of predicting everything predictable. If, for instance, the occurrence of a lunar eclipse could be predicted, its signiﬁcance as a portent [something that foreshadows a coming event] was much reduced. More positively, the image of the emperor as successful preserver of the cosmic order was inevitably enhanced if his government was seen to comprehend the subtlest motion of the heavens (Cullen 1996: 5-6). 1

188

Astronomy is one of the most popular hobbies in the United States. A website teachers and students might find interesting is “Zoom Astronomy” (http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/). It is a “comprehensive on-line hypertext book about astronomy. It’s designed for students of all ages and levels of comprehension. It was created with a simple structure that allows the reader to start at a basic level for each topic, and progress to more advanced information when and if it is desired” (http://www.allaboutspace.com/subjects/astronomy). Also, the web site of the Hubble Space Telescope has spectacular photos and commentary (http://hubblesite.org).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

The annual publication of the calendar was one of the most important activities of government astronomers. This was the ruling dynasty’s proclamation of legitimacy.2 On the ﬁrst day of winter, the director of the Astronomical Bureau submitted the coming year’s calendar to the emperor. Included was a list of activities such as worship, making sacriﬁcial offerings, giving out favors and awards, marriage ceremonies, adding new staff or servants, bathing, receiving beauty treatments, etc. (see Document 3, below), and the correct (i.e., auspicious) days on which they could be done. Why? A standard calendar in late imperial China included a large section given over to auspicious dates .… Since this calendar was authorized by the emperor, the destiny and daily life of Chinese subjects were thus symbolically sanctioned and controlled by the emperor through a calendar whose precision in turn articulate the emperor’s mandate of heaven (http://www.admin.ias.edu/hssem/pingyi.html)

UNIT 3 – K

Almanacs giving lists of lucky days are still extremely popular wherever Chinese is spoken.3 As mentioned above, Chinese astronomers sought foreign data and know-how in order to check the accuracy of their calculations. Before the middle of the seventh century CE, after Buddhism had become rooted in China, Indian astronomers worked in the Chinese capital . . . They were more reliable for predicting solar eclipses than those current in China. The political signiﬁcance of solar eclipses led the Chinese court from the turn of the eighth century to depend on resident foreign astronomers. When the Mongols brought China under their rule in the second half of the thirteenth century [the Yuan dynasty, 1279-1368], their astronomical officials were Islamic, from Persia and Central Asia (Sivin 1990: 192). In the seventeenth century, Jesuit missionaries replaced Muslims as high-level astronomy officials. This was because the Muslims had lost the ability to predict eclipses or produce a correct calendar. They merely followed previous computations and therefore “errors accumulated as the same calendar was recycled for two hundred years” (http://www.admin.ias.edu/hssem/pingyi.html). The Jesuits were mainly interested in converting China to Catholicism. To do this, they needed access to the court. The only established access to the top was the Astronomical Bureau, which had provided positions to foreigners for nearly one thousand years. By 1645 the Europeans had gained operational control of the bureau after submitting to the throne a series of treatises that set in Chinese the mathematical and cosmological foundations of European astronomy and winning several dramatic eclipse prediction contests (Sivin 1990: 192). Although there was resistance to the Europeans, the superiority of their methods was soon recognized. Ten officials of the Bureau of Astronomy signed the following statement: At ﬁrst we also had our doubts about the astronomy from Europe when it was used in 1629 [when the Jesuits beat the court astronomers in correctly predicting a solar eclipse], but after having read many clear explanations our doubts diminished by half, and ﬁnally by participating in precise observations of the stars, and of the positions of the sun and moon, our hesitations were altogether overcome. Recently we received the imperial order to study these sciences, and every day we have been discussing them with the Europeans. Truth must be sought not only in books, but in making actual experiments with instruments . . . (Needham 1959: 456). 2

In fact, when there was a change of dynasty, loyalist individuals or even states would refuse to use the new calendar. After the fall of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), for instance, Korea refused to use the calendar of its successor, the Qing (1644-1911). For a “Chinese Almanac Online,” see http://chinesefortunecalendar.com/Almanac.htm

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

189

Using instruments to seek the truth was not alien to Chinese tradition. The Chinese had been observing the sky with instruments since before the beginning of the Common Era. By the seventeenth century, however, Western methods had surpassed those of China and other countries. Also, the telescope, recently invented in Europe, was about to change astronomy forever. In addition to the telescope, the other discovery that revolutionized sixteenth and seventeenth century European science was Copernicus’ theory of a heliocentric (sun-centered) solar system. The Jesuits brought news of the telescope to China but, although they were well-acquainted with Copernican theory, didn’t teach or publicize it in China. This was because the church condemned Galileo in 1616 and 1632 (Needham 1959: 443, 444). The Jesuits were only able to introduce the Copernican system to China in 1760. UNIT 3 – K

Rationale: Students will learn why the Chinese were such careful observers of the sky and why the importation of astronomical expertise was so important. Time: Two forty minute lessons. Instructional Resources: Five pairs of documents with exercises and questions:

1. Astronomy and Imperial Rule 2. The Crab Nebula 3. The Calendar and Daily Life 4. Chinese and Western Almanacs 5. Eclipses and Eclipse Prediction 6. Description of a Solar Eclipse 7. Foreign Astronomers in China 8. What Went Wrong With Chinese Astronomy? 9. The Jesuits and Astronomy 10. Eclipse Prediction Contest Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: The class is divided up into ﬁve groups; each group receives one pair of documents.

•

First day Each group will read its documents and answer the questions and do the exercises in writing. Students can (1) work by themselves, coordinate their answers, and prepare one written piece, or (2) discuss the documents, exercises, and questions, and then write together. In the end, there should be one written set of answers from each group, and each group member should have a copy of it.

•

Second day The class divides into new groups, each new group having a member from one of the previous groups. Each group member will brieﬂy summarize the content of the documents he or she read in their ﬁrst group and explain his group’s answers to the questions. Each group will answer the essential questions: What was the importance of astronomy to the pre-modern Chinese state and people? How did the West-East exchange of scientiﬁc information along the Silk Roads affect China?

190

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

Whole Group Reflection: On the second day, a member from each group will present the group’s conclusions. Instructional Modification: Consideration should be taken regarding academic levels in choosing group members and resource materials. Application: How does modern astronomy, with its use of satellites and other advanced technology, affect people’s everyday lives? The class can consider issues such as war and peace, the weather, the environment, etc. Legendary Astronomers Measure The Sun’s Shadow with a Device Called a Gnomon. Here They Are Determining The Beginning Of Summer When The Shadow Is Shortest

UNIT 3 – K

(Source: Qinding Gujin tushu jicheng [Imperially approved synthesis of books and illustrations, past and present] (1726-1728), reprinted in 1905) http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/pictures/solstice-2-ss.jpg

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

191

DOCUMENT 1: ASTRONOMY AND IMPERIAL RULE It was an urgent matter of national security, as we would put it today, for the Imperial Directorate of Astronomy to be able to predict solar eclipses and other celestial events. This was because if not predicted they were ominous; that is to say, they could be interpreted (and exploited by prospective rebels) as warnings from Heaven that the virtue of the ruling house was failing (http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~nsivin/cop.html).

UNIT 3 – K

The emperor was responsible for performing rituals to protect the state and the people. For instance, on a chosen day at the beginning of spring, he would plow the ﬁrst furrow to begin the planting season. This was done to guarantee an abundant harvest. He was also the only person allowed to offer sacriﬁces to Heaven. Astronomy was important to such ceremonies because For the state, it was necessary that certain imperial rituals should be carried out at the proper times. Such rituals, often involving the emperor himself as celebrant were an essential contribution to the maintenance of cosmic order. If they were mistimed, they could fail to do beneﬁt or even do harm. If winter solstice [the beginning of winter] fell a few minutes before midnight, but the astronomers predicted it an hour later, the emperor would be led to carry out his sacriﬁcial ritual a whole day late (Cullen 1996: 6).

1. Why is predicting eclipses a question of “national security”?

2. Why would plowing the first furrow before spring began be a bad thing?

3. How might astronomy be used to validate the Emperor’s legitimacy?

192

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 2: THE CRAB NEBULA *

UNIT 3 – K

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Paul Scowen, Mt. Palomar 60-inch telescope) http://setiathome.ssl.berkeley.edu/newsletters/newsletter18.html

In 1054 CE Chinese astronomers observed the sudden appearance of what they called a “guest star.” This was a new star so bright that it was seen in daylight for twenty-three days. The “guest star” was a supernova, an explosion occurring at the end of a star’s life. The above photo is of the Crab Nebula, the cloud of gas and dust left behind by this explosion. The Chinese had been observing such phenomena for many centuries. Why was this event in the sky so important? In pre-modern China, everything that existed was ﬁt into three words: HEAVEN EARTH HUMANKIND

The “universe.” It gives birth to everything. Planet earth and everything on it, living and non-living. People—men and women.

It was believed that Heaven, Earth, and humankind were interconnected and what happened in the sky reﬂected the state of affairs on earth (Cullen 1996: 2). It was therefore the astronomer’s job to understand connections between Heaven and Earth. According to one of the Chinese classics, a court astronomer . . . concerns himself with the stars in the heavens, keeping a record of the changes and movements of the planets . . . [and] the sun and moon, in order to understand whether events on earth will bring good or bad fortune (Zhouli 6; Adapted from Needham 1959: 190). In pre-modern China, astronomers were court officials responsible to the emperor. Events such as eclipses, comets, and supernovae might signal trouble for the dynasty and the emperor’s rule. What about this “guest star”? Since it wasn’t positioned near the main star of the constellation in which it suddenly appeared, court astronomers told the emperor that the guest was a friendly one. They thought this demonstrated the greatness of the emperor’s rule, since he was able to attract guests from far away.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

193

DOCUMENT 2: THE CRAB NEBULA * (continued from the previous page.)

Web Quest: The Crab Nebula Using a search engine such as google.com, search for “Crab Nebula.” Answer the following questions. You can look up unfamiliar words in the following online astronomy dictionary for students: http://www.allaboutspace.com/subjects/astronomy UNIT 3 – K

1. Is China the only society thought to have observed the Crab Nebula? Name one other.

2. What constellation did the “guest star” appear in?

3. What would have happened if this guest star was closer to our solar system?

194

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 3: THE CALENDAR AND DAILY LIFE In pre-modern China it was “believed that Heaven, Earth, and humankind were interconnected and that what happened in the sky reﬂected the state of affairs on earth” (Cullen 1996: 2). One of the most important expressions of this belief was the government’s yearly publication of the calendar. It was issued under the name of the emperor, the “Son of Heaven.” On the ﬁrst day of winter, the director of the Astronomical Bureau submitted the calendar for the coming year. Included was a list of activities and the correct days on which they could be done. These things were all related to the daily life of the emperor and his relatives. Correct days were listed for UNIT

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11.

Worship, offerings, and prayers Giving out favors and awards Submitting documents to the court Publishing imperial decrees Capping ceremony [coming of age ceremony for young men] Outings Banquets Summoning the wise and virtuous [inviting people to court who weren’t government officials and have them offer political advice] Ceremony for the army when it was setting out on a campaign Sending envoys to foreign countries Marriage arrangements

12. Marriage ceremonies 13. New staff or servants joining the household 14. Bathing 15. Beauty treatment 16. Shaving the head 17. Manicure 18. Receiving medical treatment 19. Tailoring 20. Construction work: digging foundations and erecting pillars and beams 21. Repairing city walls 22. Making drains and digging wells 23. Planting trees 24. Hunting (Adapted from Ho 1969: 142-143)

3 – K

The calendar, as well as privately published almanacs, had similar lists that applied to the daily lives of common people. The following table explains why lists of lucky and unlucky days were compiled:

1. The emperor is the Son of Heaven; 2. The emperor issues the calendar; 3. The calendar charts the harmonious movement of Heaven (sun, moon, stars, and planets); 4. The calendar’s list of lucky and unlucky days shows how human activity is connected to the movements of the sun, moon, stars, and planets; 5. When the people follow the calendar by obeying the list of lucky and unlucky days, the people are in harmony with Heaven.

1. Do people still believe that their daily lives are connected to the stars and planets? Explain. Can you name anything that people today do (or not do) based on the stars?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

195

DOCUMENT 4: CHINESE AND WESTERN ALMANACS An almanac is a yearly publication that gives a calendar and other information such as the times of sunrise and sunset. Almanacs are important in Chinese society because Almost all activities of daily life, from taking a wife to closing a business deal, were conducted according to an elaborate . . . scheme of lucky and unlucky days. Such schemes were an essential part of the calendar in the form most widely distributed. Commercially published almanacs giving this information are still bought in huge numbers by modern Chinese people (Cullen 1996: 6). UNIT 3 – K

Activity: Comparing Almanacs Take a look at the contents page of a current world almanac such as the World Almanac and Book of Facts, New York Times Almanac, or Time Almanac in your school library. Then access one of these Chinese-style almanacs on the internet: http://www.dragon-gate.com/resources/Fengshuitools/almanac/index.asp http://www.chinesefortunecalendar.com/Almanac.htm http://www.chineseastrologyonline.com/FarmerCal.htm

Answer the following questions: 1. What does the Western Almanac contain that the Chinese-style almanac doesn’t?

2. What does the Chinese almanac contain that the Western doesn’t?

3. Are there any similarities between the two?

196

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 5: ECLIPSES AND ECLIPSE PREDICTION Eclipse prediction was one of the most important responsibilities of imperial astronomers. When the earth’s shadow falls on the moon, it is called a lunar eclipse; when the moon is between the Earth and the Sun, it is called a solar eclipse.

UNIT 3 – K

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/moon/Lunareclipse.shtml http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/sun/solareclipses.shtml

During a lunar eclipse, the size of the Earth’s shadow blocking the Moon is more than 6,000 miles in diameter. In a solar eclipse, the Moon’s shadow falling on Earth and blocking the Sun is only about 150 miles in diameter—a tiny part of the Earth’s surface. Therefore it’s much more difficult to predict a solar eclipse compared to a lunar eclipse. In addition, although lunar eclipses come at regular intervals, solar eclipses do not (http://eclipse99.nasa.gov/pages/traditions_Calendars.html). Although lunar eclipses could be predicted with considerable accuracy by 100 BCE, the lack of the mathematics needed to calculate accurately the intersection of the Moon’s shadow cone with the Earth’s sphere made solar eclipses a continuing problem. The tendency of the imperial court to look abroad for technicians who could deal with it was fateful for the development of astronomy within China . . . (Adapted from Sivin 1990: 174).

Note Taking Guide: Lunar and Solar Eclipses Use this guide to record information. Then answer the following questions.

Eclipses:

What happens? (Where is the Earth? The Sun? The Moon?)

Size of shadow?

Easy/hard to predict?

Lunar eclipse

Solar eclipse

1. Which type of eclipse could the Chinese predict easily? 2. Why is it harder to predict a solar eclipse?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

197

DOCUMENT 6: DESCRIPTION OF A SOLAR ECLIPSE* The Chinese word for “solar eclipse” combines the character for “sun” with the character for “to eat”:

UNIT 3 – K

SHI

RI’SHI

“Sun”

“to eat”

“Solar eclipse”

In August 1514, the Chinese recorded the following account of a solar eclipse: At about mid-day, the sun was suddenly eclipsed. It was total. Stars were seen and it was dark. Even objects an arm’s length away could not be seen. The domestic animals were alarmed and people were terriﬁed. After a while, it became light (Adapted from http://eclipse99.nasa.gov/pages/traditions_Calendars.html).

1. Study the eclipse diagram in Document 5, what gets “eaten” in a lunar eclipse? In a solar eclipse?

2. Enter the term “solar eclipse cruise” in a search engine such as a google.com, and examine one or two of the results. How do the reactions of people today toward a solar eclipse differ from this Chinese account? Why?

198

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 7: FOREIGN ASTRONOMERS IN CHINA* Before the middle of the seventh century CE, after Buddhism had become rooted in China, Indian astronomers worked in the Chinese capital . . . They were more reliable for predicting solar eclipses than those current in China. The political signiﬁcance of solar eclipses led the Chinese court from the turn of the eighth century to depend on resident foreign astronomers. When the Mongols brought China under their rule in the second half of the thirteenth century [the Yuan dynasty, 1279-1368], their astronomical officials were Islamic, from Persia and Central Asia (Sivin 1990: 192). Under the Mongols a separate Institute of Muslim Astronomy was established (Allsen 2001: 168). The Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1562-1610) (see Document 9, below) later made the following observations about this dual system:

UNIT 3 – K

The present Emperor supports two separate schools of astronomy at a very great expense .… One of these schools follows the method of the Chinese who claim to possess the knowledge of determining the calendars and the eclipses. The other follows the Saracens [Muslims], reducing the same facts to the tables which have been introduced from abroad. The results arrived at by each school . . . are always compared so that one may be aided and corrected by the other for a ﬁnal decision (Ho 1969: 153).

1. Why did the Chinese require the assistance of foreign astronomers?

2. Name two societies that supplied astronomers to China.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

199

DOCUMENT 8: WHAT WENT WRONG WITH CHINESE ASTRONOMY?

UNIT

. . . by the middle of the ﬁfteenth century Chinese astronomy was in dire straits. The Ming [dynasty, 1368-1644] astronomers simply routinely followed the computation tables left by the Yüan [the previous dynasty, 1279-1368] astronomers to compile the calendar. They were unable to master the complicated calculating techniques and had difficulties revising the calendar once it lost precision. The officials of the Bureau of Astronomy could neither produce a correct calendar, nor predict with high precision events as signiﬁcant as solar eclipses. The problems were due in part to errors accumulated as the same calendar was recycled for two hundred years, and in part to the failure to adjust [their instruments] for the transfer of the Ming capital from Nanjing [in the south] to Beijing [in the north]. However, a large portion of the responsibility must be assigned to incompetent court astronomers

3 – K

(http://www.admin.ias.edu/hssem/pingyi.html).

Activity: Star-gazing in Ming China Question: Why would the failure to adjust instruments for the transfer of the Ming capital from a southern to a northern city be a problem for Chinese astronomers? To find out, go to eCuip, the web site of the Digital Library Project of the Chicago Public Schools/University of Chicago Internet Project: http://ecuip.lib.uchicago.edu/diglib/science/cultural_astronomy/interactives/polaris/polaris.swf Here, by comparing the difference between observing Polaris (the North Star) from the North Pole and from Chicago, you’ll find out why latitude makes a difference when observing the stars. Pretend that the North Pole is Beijing and Chicago is the southern city of Nanjing. Answer the questions below.

1. Look at a globe or world map. Which is farther north, the North Pole or Chicago? Beijing or Nanjing?

2. Study pp. 3-5 on the website. At the North Pole, where is Polaris in relation to you, the viewer?

3. Study pp. 6-7 on the web site. At Chicago, where is Polaris in relation to you, the viewer?

4. If you had instruments adjusted for Chicago (Nanjing) and moved them to the North Pole (Beijing), would you find Polaris in the same place?

200

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 9: THE JESUITS AND ASTRONOMY* The Jesuit missionaries in China in the early seventeenth century were there not to teach astronomical science but to convert the empire from the top down to Roman Catholicism. The only established access to the top was the Astronomical Bureau, which had provided positions to foreigners for nearly one thousand years. By 1645 the Europeans had gained operational control of the bureau after submitting to the throne a series of treatises that set in Chinese the mathematical and cosmological foundations of European astronomy and winning several dramatic eclipse prediction contests (Adapted from Sivin 1990: 192). Matteo Ricci (1562-1610) was a Jesuit and one of the founders of the Catholic Church in China. Learning to read and write Chinese, he spent years cultivating friendships with sympathetic Chinese scholar-officials. He not only saw himself as a Catholic missionary, but as a teacher of western mathematics and science.

UNIT 3 – K

Although the instruments he was shown at the Imperial Observatories impressed Ricci, he expressed the following view of Chinese astronomy: They divide the heavens into constellations in a manner somewhat different from that which we employ. Their count of the stars outnumbers the calculations of our astronomers by fully four hundred, because they include in it many of the fainter stars which are not always visible. And yet with all this, the Chinese astronomers take no pains whatever to reduce the phenomena of celestial bodies to the discipline of mathematics . . . Finally they center their whole attention on that phase of astronomy which our scientists term astrology, which may be accounted for by the fact that they believe that everything happening on this terrestrial globe of ours depends on the stars (Ho 1969: 151-152).

1. Why did the Jesuits use their scientific knowledge in China?

2. What was Ricci’s main criticism of Chinese astronomy?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

201

DOCUMENT 10: ECLIPSE PREDICTION CONTESTS* The solar eclipse of June 21, 1629 gave rise to an occasion for the traditional Chinese method, the Muslim method and the Western method for the prediction of eclipses to be compared with one another, and here Xu Guangqi [one of China’s ﬁrst Catholics and an associate of Matteo Ricci] succeeded in demonstrating the superiority of the new method. It was only then that the Ming emperor decided to see if the calendar could be revised . . . (Ho 1969: 150).

UNIT 3 – K

The Belgian Ferdinand Verbiest (1623-1688) was another Jesuit who came to China. In 1668, at the emperor’s command, he debated with a Muslim astronomer. The two each had to predict the hour of an expected lunar eclipse. Verbiest won—the eclipse came an hour later and lasted for much less time than the court astronomers had predicted. Verbiest was put in charge of the Imperial Observatory in Beijing and supervised the making of a new set of instruments.4 Although there was resistance to the Europeans, the superiority of their methods was soon recognized. Ten officials of the Bureau of Astronomy signed the following statement: At ﬁrst we also had our doubts about the astronomy from Europe when it was used in 1629 [when the Jesuits beat the court astronomers in correctly predicting a solar eclipse], but after having read many clear explanations our doubts diminished by half, and ﬁnally by participating in precise observations of the stars, and of the positions of the sun and moon, our hesitations were altogether overcome. Recently we received the imperial order to study these sciences, and every day we have been discussing them with the Europeans. Truth must be sought not only in books, but in making actual experiments with instruments . . . (Needham 1959: 456).

1. Who were the contestants in the eclipse-prediction contest? Who won?

2. Give one reason why the ten Chinese astronomy officials accepted European methods.

202

For illustrations and brief explanations of these instruments, see http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/tycho/catfm.htm?beijing

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

Unit L

THE SILK ROADS YESTERDAY, TODAY, AND TOMORROW

Essential Questions: Can a “Silk Roads” based on oil and other natural resources be economically beneﬁcial to China and Central Asia in the twenty-ﬁrst century? How do China’s future energy needs ﬁt into the picture of Central Asia’s development in the twenty-ﬁrst century? Learning Experience: Through class discussion, studying a series of tables, and reading an article, students will begin to understand the problems facing industrializing nations such as China. They will also learn the importance of global interdependence in the face of the depletion of natural resources, a major world problem. Anticipatory Set: How do countries get what they don’t have? Going to war was and, unfortunately, still is an option. Through what peaceful means will China get what it needs to continue its unprecedented economic growth? What role will Central Asia play?

UNIT 3 – L

The Shanghai Skyline Symbolizes China’s Future Energy Needs Will Central Asian Oil Satisfy Them?

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Renqiu Yu, 2002)

Context: As early as the second century BCE, the Silk Roads facilitated the movement of goods and ideas between East and West. Merchants took great physical and ﬁnancial risks to proﬁt from the demand for a variety of luxury goods, most notably silk. By the ﬁfteenth and sixteenth centuries, however, political and religious instability, particularly in Persia, caused a decline in Silk Roads trade. It was never again to play a vital role in the exchange of goods and ideas between East and West.

Although the era of the Silk Roads has long since passed, events of recent years suggest that there may be some sort of “Silk Roads” revival underway. This time, however, the main commodity will be oil and other natural resources.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

203

The collapse of the Soviet Union helped Central Asia reemerge as a region with the potential of playing a more prominent role in world affairs. Uzbekistan, home to such fabled Silk Roads cities as Samarkand and Bukhara, is developing into a regional power. Kazakhstan, the largest of the “stans,” is potentially one of Central Asia’s richest nations, with huge deposits of oil, gas, and minerals (Map B and Map C). Kazakhstan is important to world energy markets because it has signiﬁcant oil and natural gas reserves. As foreign investment pours into the country’s oil and natural gas sectors, the landlocked Central Asian state is beginning to realize its enormous production potential. With sufﬁcient export options, Kazakhstan could become one of the world’s largest oil producers and exporters in the next decade (http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/kazak.html). In the future, Kazakhstan’s oil wealth may serve to promote interdependence between Central Asia and the People’s Republic of China: China currently is the world’s third largest oil consumer, behind the United States and Japan . . . China is expected to surpass Japan as the second largest world oil consumer within the next decade . . . making it a major factor in the world oil market (http://eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contentsnjava.html) UNIT 3 – L

China has been an importer of oil since 1993. The need for imports will increase with time. Therefore, China . . . has been acquiring interests in [oil] exploration and production abroad. CNPC [China National Petroleum Corporation] holds oil concessions in Kazakhstan, Venezuela, Sudan, Iraq, Iran, Peru, and Azerbaijan . . . The most signiﬁcant deal thus far is CNPC’s acquisition of a 60% stake in the Kazakh ﬁrm Aktobemunaigaz, which came with a pledge to invest signiﬁcantly in the company’s future development over the next twenty years. While there had been some discussion of a possible oil pipeline from Kazakhstan to China, CNPC has said that it would only be considered if reserves were sufficient and it was economical, which looks doubtful (http://eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contentsnjava.html). As petroleum becomes scarcer and more expensive in the twenty-ﬁrst century, perhaps this pipeline will become a reality. In addition, perhaps the “Silk Roads” framework can be useful for analyzing important current and future regional economic trends. Some questions to consider are: Does the twenty-ﬁrst century offer the possibility of a revival of the Silk Roads? If so, how might this occur? What will be the effects of this revival? Rationale: Much of this unit is speculative and much is beyond the scope of a typical global history curriculum. However, this inquiry could be useful at the end of the sophom*ore year as a way of both reviewing key content from earlier in the global history course, and as a way of using a “case study” approach to illustrate some current global economic trends. It may also be a way of covering, via a look at economic trends in Central Asia and China, broader themes such as interdependence, use of resources, and the movement of peoples and goods. This unit also teaches students how to interpret economic tables and graphs. Time: One forty-minute session. Instructional Resources:

•

204

Handouts: “China—Economic and Energy Data,” four tables and accompanying questions; article on “China’s Mounting Inﬂuence on Central Asia: The Battle for Oil” and accompanying questions.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

•

List of key economic terms. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: Begin the class by asking students to answer the following question:

Why do you think China’s need for energy has been increasing in recent years?” Allow students enough time to consider the question and write a response before engaging in full class discussion. Possible reasons for China’s rising energy needs—increasing population, economic growth, technological development, etc.—should then be listed on the blackboard. •

Distribute Handout 1, “China—Economic and Energy Data,” which contains four tables and accompanying questions. Have students answer the questions based on study of the tables. Working in cooperative pairs, have students think about possible solutions to China’s energy problems. They may come up with some of the following possibilities: conservation of energy, promotion of efficient use of energy, development of alternative energy resources, increased imports of oil and natural gas. Discuss in class the positive and negative affects of these different options.

UNIT 3 – L

•

Distribute Handout 2, “China’s Mounting Inﬂuence on Central Asia: The Battle for Oil” and accompanying questions.

Whole Group Reflection: How would life in the United States be different without plentiful supplies of oil? Would oil shortages impact a society like China’s in the same way? Instructional Modifications: Some classes will require introduction to the economic reforms that took place in China beginning in the 1980s and to the economic terms used in the tables. Application: Ask students to write a 1-2 page essay on the following situation: As an adviser to the Chinese government, you are asked to present a report on possible solutions to China’s energy problems. A Car-free Shopping Street in Guangzhou (Canton) in Southern China Building China’s Consumer-oriented Society Will Require More and More Imported Oil

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Renqiu Yu, 2002)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

205

STUDENT HANDOUT 1 Table 1: China—Economic and Energy Data China’s shares of world totals (in percent)

1971

1995

2010

2020

GDP

Population

Primary Energy Demands (including combustible renewables and waste)

(Source: IEA 1998)

UNIT 3 – L

Table 1: Questions 1. What percentage of the world’s GDP did China have in 1995? 2. How is this projected to change by 2020?

3. How is China’s share of “primary energy demand” projected to change by 2020?

4. The greatest change in GDP was between 1971 and 1995. What might have accounted for this change?

5. What is the relation between GDP and population?

206

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

Table 2: Projections for the Chinese Energy System Total Primary Energy Demands Millions of tonnes, oil-equivalent—Mtoe

1971

1995

2010

2020

Solid Fuels (basically coal)

190

664

1087

1416

Oil

164

355

506

Gas

Nuclear

33 UNIT 3 – L

Hydro

Other Renewables

Total

239

864

1539

2101

(Source: IEA 1998)

Table 2: Questions 1. How has China’s total primary energy demand been changing in recent years?

2. According to the chart, which type of fuel does China rely on the most? What are some disadvantages of this?

3. How much oil is China expected to need in 2010? 2020?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

207

Table 3: Looking into the Future—The Roots of China’s Energy Concerns

GDP (in billions of U.S. dollars)

Population (in millions)

GDP per capita (thousands of U.S. dollars)

1971

1995

2010

2020

484

3404

8426

13123

845

1206

1372

1469

0.57

2.82

6.14

8.93

(Source: IEA 1998)

Table 3: Questions 1. How do the economic and population figures in Table 3 explain the numbers in Table 2?

UNIT

Table 4: Chinese Estimates of Future Petroleum Imports

3 – L

In millions of tonnes 2000

2010

2020

2050

Demand

200

260

320

520

Domestic Supply

155

165

180

Deficit

140

440

Deficit met by: Substitution Fuels

–

280

Oil Imports

–

Projections 1996

160

Projections 1999

60-75

130

–

(Source: IEA 1998)

Table 4: Questions 1. According to the chart, what general trend do you see? 2. What change in domestic supply does the chart predict will take place between 2020 and 2050? 3. What is China’s solution to the increase in demand for oil? What possible problems might arise from them?

208

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

STUDENT HANDOUT 2 “China’s Mounting Influence on Central Asia: The Battle for Oil”

China is making inroads into Central Asia as its need for energy imports keeps climbing. Spurred by an economy that grew by nearly 10 percent in the ﬁrst half of the year, China has been seeking new oil sources in the region and around the world. China’s oil imports have already soared by 34 percent this year. China has been an oil importer since 1996, but its recent economic boom has pushed it past Japan to make it the world’s second-biggest oil consumer, behind the United States. High demand has driven the country’s state-owned oil companies into foreign markets that seemed too distant only a few years ago. Under the Chinese government’s “go West” policy, state companies have revived projects in Kazakhstan that have languished since 1997, when China National Petroleum Corporation promised to invest $9.5 billion in pipelines and oil ﬁelds thousands of kilometers from home. Robert Ebel, who directs the energy and national security program at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington, said the reason for China’s involvement in Central Asia is prompted both by higher demand and its need to reduce the risk of relying on the Middle East. “I think [China] sees that its requirements are going to be met in the future only through imports, and so they’re just reaching out to wherever they can—whether it’s Azerbaijan, or Syria, or Russia or Central Asia, or Venezuela—to diversify these sources of imports, not only to diversify their sources of supply but how the oil gets to China,” Ebel said.

UNIT 3 – L

Ebel said that Central Asia offers China land routes that reduce the vulnerability of depending solely on ocean transport. But so far, the returns from Central Asia have been small. For now, Kazakhstan is the only Central Asian country that exports oil to China. Kazakh oil shipments to China, which are sent by rail, account for less than 1 percent of China’s imports. But that could soon change thanks to an agreement in May to build a 1,000-kilometer oil pipeline from Kazakhstan’s central Karaganda region to western China. . . . Beijing has invested some $1.3 billion so far. More than 6,000 Kazakh workers are employed at the site, with another 6,000 working on other Chinese-run projects in the vicinity. Nurmukhambet Abdibekov, deputy governor of the Aqtobe region, is enthusiastic about the Chinese investment. He said it is already raising the standard of living for thousands of families. “This project is expanding. New jobs are being created,” Abdibekov said. “We are sure that it is very positive that the local citizens have got these opportunities, that they can get these new well-paid jobs to support their families.” . . . Veteran oil expert Otesin Zhumanov is amazed at the latest developments. “I never thought that the Chinese would ever come here to run our business,” Zhumanov said. “I did everything to make my two sons become oil managers and oil experts. We had no idea about foreign investors then, even to forecast such developments” (Source: Michael Lelyveld, November 20, 2004 http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/business/articles/pp112004.shtml)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

209

(continued from the previous page.)

1. Why does China need new sources of oil?

2. What is China’s “go West” policy?

3. Why is central Asian oil more reliable?

Key Economic Terms UNIT 3 – L

GDP (Gross Domestic Product): The total market value of all goods and services produced within the political boundaries of an economy during a given period of time, usually one year. Per capita GDP: GDP divided by the number of people living in a country. Nominal GDP: Measured in current dollars. An increase in nominal GDP may reflect not only increases in production of goods and services, but also increases in prices. Real GDP: GDP adjusted for price changes. It permits comparisons of material living standards over time and between different nations. Tonne of Oil Equivalent (TOE): A way of measuring energy in terms of the heat content of crude oil. Import: To bring in goods or merchandise from a foreign country. Export: To send out goods or merchandise from one country to another. Gas: Includes natural, co*ke oven, and blast furnace gas as well as gas works. Nuclear: Shows the primary heat equivalent of the electricity produced by a nuclear power plant with an average thermal efficiency of thirty-three per cent. Hydro: Shows the energy content of the electricity produced in hydroelectric power plants. Hydro output excludes output from pumped storage plants. Other renewables: This heading covers combustible renewables, solid biomass and animal products, gas/liquids from biomass, industrial waste, and municipal waste. (Source: http://www.econedlink.org)

210

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

Unit M

TWO LEGENDARY TRAVELERS: MARCO POLO AND IBN BATTUTA

Essential Questions: What unique political circ*mstances made travel possible for Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta? What did a thirteenth century European and a fourteenth century North African Muslim feel was important, unusual or exotic about the Asia they traveled through? Learning Experience: Students will be able to (1) understand the historical context that made the travels of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta possible; (2) get a sense of what Asia under Mongol rule was like; (3) also look at travel in the pre-modern world through the lenses of their own travel experiences. Anticipatory Set: Have you ever experienced culture shock? Compare your own travel experiences to travel in an age when most people spent their lives very near home. Context: The Eurasian land travels of both Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta were made possible by the Mongol conquests of the thirteenth century. The Mongol empire divided Eurasia into an empire that included Russia, Iran, all Central Asia, China, and Korea. They encouraged trade and permitted merchants and other travelers, regardless of religion or ethnicity, to pass through their domains. Under the Pax Mongolica—the “Mongol Peace”—it was possible to go almost anywhere within their domains. A fourteenth century Italian merchant’s handbook says that it was “perfectly safe, whether by day or night” to travel from the Black Sea to China (Latham 1958: 15).

Marco Polo was born about 1254, the son of a Venetian merchant. In the Middle Ages, the city-state of Venice was a powerful force in the eastern Mediterranean. When the Byzantine capital of Constantinople was captured and sacked during the Fourth Crusade (1204), the doge of Venice1 was one of the commanders of the occupying force.

UNIT 3 – M

Venice fought bitterly with its main rival, the city-state of Genoa, to control trade in the Black Sea region. In 1298, Marco Polo was captured during a sea battle between Venice and Genoa. In a Genoese prison, he dictated his Travels to a well-known writer, Rustichello of Pisa. In 1265 or 1266, Marco Polo’s father and uncle visited the court of Khubilai Khan, ruler of Mongolia and north China. Khubilai was a grandson of Chinggis Khan, the man who united the Mongols and set them on the road to world empire. Khubilai asked the brothers to return home and persuade the Pope to gather a hundred learned Christians to accompany them back to China. The Polo brothers weren’t able to do this, but they returned to China in 1275, bringing Marco with them.2 Khubilai employed the Polo family, we are told, in important government positions. This was in keeping with the Mongol practice of using foreigners rather than potentially disloyal Chinese. Marco Polo traveled as a European Christian in a completely alien world. He was interested in “peoples, beasts, and birds; gold, silver, precious stones, and pearls; merchandise and many other things” 1 2

“Doge” was the title of the ruler of the city state. Four years later, in 1279, Khubilai would become the emperor of all China after the defeat of the Southern Song dynasty.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

211

(Olschki 1960: 130). He had a merchant’s eye for “available sources of food and water . . . means of transport . . . the marketable products of every district . . . and the channels through which ﬂowed the interlacing streams of export and import” (Latham 1958: 19). The Polos returned to Venice after more than twenty years in Asia. Marco’s book, called The Travels, enjoyed widespread popularity and early on was translated into practically every European language. More than a hundred manuscript copies of the text exist today.3 “Abu ‘Abdallah ibn Battuta has been rightly celebrated as the greatest traveler of pre-modern times. He was born into a family of Muslim legal scholars in Tangier, Morocco, in 1324 . . . He studied law as a young man . . . “After twenty years of travel, in 1354 Ibn Battuta returned home. He spent the rest of his life as a provincial judge and died in 1368 or 1369. His travels covered some 73,000 miles (Dunn: 1986: 1, 3, 316, 318). Like Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta’s land travels were made possible by the Mongol conquests: The powerful Mongol khans of Persia and Central Asia were converting to Islam, and the conditions of order and security that attended the Pax Mongolica of the later thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries gave freer play than ever to the movement of Muslims back and forth across Eurasia (Dunn 1986: 11). Unlike Marco Polo, who entered a strange new world on leaving Venice, Ibn Battuta . . . spent most of his traveling career within the cultural boundaries of what Muslims call Dar al-Islam, or Abode of Islam . . . the lands where Muslims predominated in the population, or at least where Muslim kings or princes ruled over non-Muslim majorities . . . Therefore almost everywhere Ibn Battuta went, he lived in the company of other Muslims . . . (Dunn 1986: 7).

UNIT 3 – M

Ibn Battuta’s book, the Rihla (Travels), was written at the command of the Sultan of Morocco with the help of a young scholar named Ibn Juzayy. Although some parts of the book were invented to make it a more complete picture of the Muslim world, its accuracy and authenticity have stood the test of time. In his own day, however, many considered Ibn Battuta a liar (Dunn 1986: 3, 310, 314-316). In addition to traveling as a religious Muslim and a legal scholar, Ibn Battuta . . . was a member a literate, mobile, world-minded elite, an educated man . . . looking for hospitality, honors, and proﬁtable employment in the more newly established centers of Islamic civilization in the further regions of Asia and Africa (Dunn 1986: 11-12). Rationale: How much do you get to know about places by ﬂying over them in a airliner? How does it compare with land travel by horse, camel, or on foot? Why? Time: One to two class sessions. Instructional Resources:

• • • •

212

Excerpts from the travel accounts of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta Exercise: “Marco Polo Meets Ibn Battuta” Handout for “Marco Polo Meets Ibn Battuta” Map J and Map D, and atlases from the school library.

Although some have doubted whether Marco Polo actually went to China, incontrovertible evidence exists to prove this. See: http://eprints.anu.edu.au/archive/00001944/01/Marcopolo.html.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: This unit consists of two activities.

•

A. Preliminary Activity In preparation for reading Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta, students should begin to think about travel by answering the following questions: 1. List the words that come to mind when you hear the word “travel.” 2. List the places you have physically traveled to in your life. 3. What kind of trip (vacation, family visit, and so forth) was it? 4. How did you make the trip? 5. How did your background (culture, religion, language, etc.) affect your travel experience? 6. List places you have visited in your imagination—through books, television, ﬁlms, the Internet, and so forth. 7. Have you ever experienced culture shock as a result of travel? Allow students a few minutes to answer each question. Then ask the class to generate answers on the board for each question. Discuss commonalities and differences between the various answers. In preparation for reading the documents in Activity 2, class discussion should then focus on how students would “translate” their travel experience for the beneﬁt of an audience. Do you want to provide only the chronology and facts? Is embellishment acceptable? Distortions? Fabrications? Exaggerations? Bias? Can the Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta documents also be looked at in light of these concepts?

•

UNIT 3 – M

B. Documents: Selections from Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta 1. Preparation As homework, students will go over the itineraries of Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta and ﬁll in Map J and Map D. They can use atlases, Internet search engines to look up place names. The Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names is also available on the web http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/vocabularies/tgn/index.html

In class, the teacher will guide the discussion of the itineraries with a large world map or map of Asia. 2. Reading the documents The class is divided into pairs. Students will ﬁrst work separately. They will underline and try to deﬁne unfamiliar vocabulary and write out answers to the questions following each document. Each pair will compare its word lists and develop an answer that both students agree upon. •

C. Marco Polo Meets Ibn Battuta The class is divided in half: one half plays Marco Polo, one half Ibn Battuta. As homework, each student researches his/her role. In addition to understanding the historical and geographical contexts of the two journeys, students should be aware of the different backgrounds of the two young men. PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

213

Each Marco Polo makes up six questions that he/she thinks the real Marco Polo would ask the real Ibn Battuta and vice-versa. In class, groups of Marco Polos and Ibn Battutas are formed. These groups discuss the pool of questions and decide on six of the best. Each Marco Polo Group then exchanges questions with an Ibn Battuta group. The groups write out answers to the questions. The answers are then discussed and evaluated by the whole class.

Marco Polo Meets Ibn Battuta The following websites are good resources. (Teachers can also expand this assignment by using readings from Marco Polo’s Travels (Latham 1958) or Ross Dunn’s book on Ibn Battuta (Dunn 1986.)

Marco Polo and His Travels http://www.silk-road.com/artl/marcopolo.shtml In the Footsteps of Marco Polo http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Marco/get_1.html The Travels of Ibn Battuta—A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Ibn_Battuta_Rihla.html Articles from Saudi Aramco World on Ibn Battuta’s travels http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/index/Subjects.aspx#I UNIT 3 – M

Whole Group Reflection: What made travel easier for Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta compared with the barriers that would exist today if we tried to reproduce their journeys? Instructional Modification:

• • •

In pair sharing, if one student is better at giving responses, he or she should answer the questions. As a homework assignment, students can write a paragraph describing part of an actual or imaginary travel experience. If there are too many places in the itineraries (homework assignment), have some students do Marco Polo and some Ibn Battuta.

Application: Students can recreate the journeys of Marco Polo or Ibn Battuta using the itineraries (p. 222) and travel agents on the Internet. They can write brief paragraphs in imitation of their chosen author.

214

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

A Mongolian Coin Commemorates Marco Polo’s Visit to The Court of Khubilai Khan (Left).

http://www.coin-invest.li/download/pictures/marco_polo/index.shtml

UNIT 3 – M

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

215

FROM MARCO POLO’S TRAVELS DOCUMENT 1* Observing his wisdom, the Khan sent Marco as his emissary to a country named Kara-jang [Yunnan in southwest China], which it took him a good six months to reach. The lad fulﬁlled his mission well and wisely . . . When Marco went on his mission . . . he paid close attention to all the things that came his way, so he might tell them to the Great Khan. On his return he presented himself before the Great Khan and ﬁrst gave a full account of the business on which he had been sent . . . Then he went on to describe all the remarkable things he had seen on the way so that the Khan and all those who heard him were amazed. You may take it for a fact that Messer Marco stayed with the Great Khan fully seventeen years. In all this time he never ceased to travel on special missions. The Great Khan, seeing that Messer Marco brought him news from every country and conducted all the business on which he was sent so successfully, used to entrust him with all the most interesting missions (Adapted from Latham 1958: 41, 42).

1. How did Marco Polo help the Great Khan and how did the Khan reward him? 2. If you were ruler of China like the Khan, what kind of information would you tell Marco Polo to bring back from his journeys?

UNIT 3 – M

DOCUMENT 2: THE PERSIANS* Now let me tell you about an experiment that was made in a neighboring kingdom called Kerman. The people of this kingdom are good, even-tempered, and peaceful. They never miss a chance to help one another out. The king once said to the wise men of his court: “Why is it that in our neighbor Persia, people always argue and ﬁght with one another? Yet among us everyone is friendly and never ﬁghts?” The wise men answered that it was a difference in the soil. So the king then sent to Isfahan in Persia for seven shiploads of earth. He had it spread out over the ﬂoors of some rooms in the palace. He then had the earth covered with carpets. He held a banquet in these very same rooms. It so happened that right after dinner, the guests started quarrelling and ﬁghting with one another. So the king agreed that the cause did indeed come from the soil (Adapted from Latham 1958: 63).

1. What did the experiment prove? 2. Does this seem like a true story? Why or why not?

216

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 3: KHUBILAI KHAN AND RELIGION* Khubilai . . . returned to his capital and stayed there till February and March, the season of our Easter. Learning that this was one of our most important holidays, he sent for all the Christians and had them bring with them the New Testament. After repeatedly burning incense all around it, he kissed it and desired that all his noblemen do the same. He does this on all the major holidays of the Christians, such as Easter and Christmas. He does the same thing on the important holidays of the Muslims, the Jews, and the idol worshippers.5 Being asked why he did so, he replied: “There are four prophets who are worshipped with greatest respect. The Christians say that their God is Jesus Christ, the Muslims Muhammad, the Jews Moses, and the Buddhists the Buddha . . . And I worship all four, so that I may be sure of worshipping him who is greatest in heaven (Adapted from Latham 1958: 119).

1. How did Khubilai behave on all the major holidays of the Christians, Muslims, Jews, and idol worshippers?

2. As ruler of a huge multi-cultural empire, what advantage would there be for Khubilai to be tolerant of all religious faiths?

DOCUMENT 4: COAL* UNIT

Let me tell you next of stones that burn like logs. It is a fact that throughout China there is a sort of black stone, which is dug out of veins in the hillsides and burns like logs. These stones keep a ﬁre going better than wood. I assure you that, if you put them on the ﬁre in the evening and see that they are kept on ﬁre, they will continue to burn all night, so that you will ﬁnd them still glowing in the morning. They do not give off ﬂames, except a little when they are ﬁrst kindled, just as charcoal does, and once they have caught ﬁre they give out great heat. But the population is so enormous and there are so many bath-houses and baths continually being heated, that the wood could not possibly be enough, since there is no one who does not go to a bath-house at least three times a week, and in winter every day, if he can manage it (Adapted from Latham 1958: 156).

3 – M

1. Where is coal found and what does it replace?

2. Judging from Marco Polo’s remarks, how might the bathing habits of medieval Europeans have differed from those of the Chinese?

This is the term Marco Polo uses for Buddhism.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

217

DOCUMENT 5: THE MONGOL PONY EXPRESS* You must know that the city of Khan-balik (Beijing) is a center from which many roads go out to the provinces. Every road is given the name of the province to which it runs. The whole system is excellent. When one of the Great Khan’s messengers rides out along these roads, he has only to go twentyﬁve miles before he ﬁnds what they call “yamb,” a station where men and horses can rest. At every one, messengers ﬁnd comfortable places to eat and sleep. When the Great Khan needs to receive news quickly by mounted messenger, the messengers ride two hundred miles in a day, sometimes two hundred and ﬁfty . . . As they draw near the station, they blow a horn which can be heard at a great distance. On arriving, they ﬁnd two fresh horses, ready to ride. They mount them and, without a moment’s breathing-space, are off again. And so it goes on until evening. That is how these messengers manage to cover two hundred and ﬁfty miles a day. Indeed, sometimes they can achieve three hundred miles by riding all night long (Adapted from Latham 1958: 150, 151, 154).

1. What did Marco Polo think of Chinese roads?

2. What value does a pony express system like have to the ruler of a large empire?

UNIT 3 – M

218

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

FROM IBN BATTUTA’S TRAVELS Ibn Battuta Traveled the Seas in Dhows Like This

(Source: The Mariner’s Museum)

DOCUMENT 6: BAGHDAD* Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) and one of the focal points of what has been called the “Golden Age of Islam.” Its ninth century population of between 300,000-500,000 people made it the largest city in the world outside of China.

Thence we traveled to Baghdad, the City of Peace and Capital of Islam. Here there are two bridges . . . on which the people promenade night and day, both men and women. The town has eleven cathedral mosques, eight on the right bank and three on the left, together with very many other mosques and madrasas [colleges], only the latter are all in ruins.

UNIT 3 – M

The baths at Baghdad are numerous and excellently constructed, most of them being painted with pitch [pitch is made from tar and used for waterprooﬁng], which has the appearance of black marble. This pitch is brought from a spring . . . from which it ﬂows continually. It gathers at the sides of the spring like clay and is shoveled up and brought to Baghdad. Each establishment has a large number of private bathrooms, every one of which has also a wash-basin in the corner, with two taps supplying hot and cold water. Every bather is given three towels, one to wear round his waist when he goes in, another to wear round his waist when he comes out, and the third to dry himself with. In no town other than Baghdad have I seen all this elaborate arrangement, though some other towns approach it in this respect. The western part of Baghdad was the earliest to be built, but it is now for the most part in ruins. In spite of that there remain in it still thirteen quarters, each like a city in itself and possessing two or three baths (Adapted from Gibb 1969: 99).

1. Choose one word that would describe Ibn Battuta’s reaction to Baghdad. 2. Does the passage infer that Ibn Battuta comes from a more or less cosmopolitan part of the Muslim world as compared to Baghdad?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

219

DOCUMENT 7: LIFE ON THE STEPPE* The steppe is dry grassland that covers large parts of Siberia, Mongolia, and Central Asia. Humans who live on the steppe survive by raising herds of animals: sheep, horses, camels, and sometimes yaks. Steppe nomads migrate from place to place to find fresh pasture for their animals.

The place was in the Kipchak steppe [in Central Asia], which is green but ﬂat and has no trees. There is no ﬁrewood so people make ﬁres out of animal dung. You will see even the highest ranked men picking it up and carrying it with them. The only method of traveling in the steppe is by wagon. . . . These wagons have four large wheels and are pulled by two or more horses, or by oxen or camels . . . A lightweight tent is put on the wagon. It is made of a framework of thin wooden strips covered with felt . . . One can do anything one likes inside. One can sleep, eat, read, or write as the wagon moves along (Adapted from Gibb 1969: 142, 143).

1. How do people on the steppe make fire?

2. Besides travel, how do steppe people use their wagons?

DOCUMENT 8: WINTER IN THE STEPPE* UNIT 3 – M

. . . This was in the depths of winter and I used to wear three fur coats and two pairs of trousers, one lined, and then on my feet I had woolen boots, with a pair of linen-lined boots on top of these and a pair of horse skin boots lined with bearskin on top of these. I washed myself with hot water standing close to the ﬁre, but every drop of water froze instantly. When I washed my face the water ran down my beard and froze. When I shook it off it fell like snow. Water dripping from my nose froze on my moustache. I couldn’t get on my horse because I was wearing so many clothes. My traveling companions had to help me get into the saddle (Adapted from Gibb 1969: 165).

1. How did Ibn Battuta manage to get through the winter?

2. From the tone of this passage, what kind of climate is Ibn Battuta used to?

220

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 9: IBN BATTUTA ON CHINA* “Ibn Battuta praises China . . . noting the quality of its silk and porcelain, the excellence of its plums and watermelons, the enormous size of its chickens, and the advantages of its paper money” (Dunn 1986: 258). Since the Chinese weren’t Muslims, Ibn Battuta would also be shocked by such things as the Chinese love for eating pork.

China is the safest and most agreeable country in the world for the traveler. You can travel all alone across the land . . . without fear, even if you are carrying much wealth. China was beautiful, but it did not please me. On the contrary, I was greatly troubled thinking about the way paganism dominated this country. Whenever I went out of my room, I saw many things that bothered me very much. I became so unhappy that I stayed indoors most of the time and only went out when necessary. During my stay in China, whenever I saw any Muslims I always felt like I was meeting members of my own family (Adapted from Dunn 1986: 258).

1. What disturbed Ibn Battuta about China?

2. Why was he happy when he saw Muslims?

DOCUMENT 10: CHINESE MERCHANT SHIPS*

UNIT 3 – M

Less than a century after Ibn Battuta visited China, a fleet of Chinese ships sailed as far as the east coast of Africa. The ships Ibn Battuta describes below were probably much like those—the largest of which was four hundred feet long and one hundred feet wide.

[The large Chinese ships] carry a thousand men, six hundred are sailors and four hundred are soldiers . . . It has four decks and each cabin has a number of rooms and a bathroom. The cabins can be locked by the passengers, who take along with them their wives and slave girls . . . The sailors have their children living aboard ship. They grow vegetables in wooden tanks . . . Some of the Chinese own large numbers of ships that they send to foreign countries. There are no people in the world wealthier than the Chinese (Adapted from Gibb 1969: 236).

1. Describe living on a large Chinese ship.

2. Why are the Chinese wealthier than any other people?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

221

Student Handout: Marco Polo Meets Ibn Battuta

WHERE DID THEY GO?

UNIT

MARCO POLO

IBN BATTUTA

In 1265 or 1266, Marco Polo’s father and uncle visited the court of Khubilai Khan, ruler of Mongolia and north China.

Ibn Battuta was twenty when he started his travels in 1325. His original reason was to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, a duty required of all Muslims.

Khubilai asked the brothers to return home and persuade the pope to gather a hundred learned Christians to accompany them back to China. The Polo brothers weren’t able to do this, but they returned to China, bringing seventeen year-old Marco with them.

In the end, he traveled for almost thirty years and covered 75,000 miles. Unlike the Polos, who were visiting strange lands and peoples, the people Ibn Battuta met were mostly Muslim.

Marco Polo and his father and uncle leave Venice in 1271

Sacred pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca in Arabia (1325). Also visits North Africa, Egypt, Palestine, Syria

Acre ( ‘Akron in modern Israel) 2.

Southern Turkey, Syria, northern Iraq

Goes to Iraq, Persia, and once more to Mecca (1326)

Armenia (The Armenian capital was home to a colony of Italian merchants)

By sea down eastern coast of Africa. Returning, visits Oman, the Persian Gulf. Mecca again via overland route through Arabia (1328 or 1330)

Across eastern Iran to the port of Hormuz

Across central Iran to northern Afghanistan

Across northern Afghanistan

To the Pamir mountains

Detour to Constantinople

Kashgar

Again goes east through Central Asia. Arrives at the Indus River in 1333 or 1335. Spends eight years in India as a judge

Sultan appoints him to lead a diplomatic mission to the court of the Mongol emperor of China (1341). He is shipwrecked on southwestern coast of India

Travels around south India, Ceylon, Maldive Islands

Decides to go to China. Visits Bengal, Coast of Burma, Sumatra. Possibly visits southern coast of China. (Even though he describes a trip to China, some doubt that Ibn Battuta ever made such a journey)

4. To India looking for a job with the Sultanate of Delhi: Goes north through Egypt and Syria to Asia Minor. Crosses the Black Sea to Central Asian steppe (1330 or 1332)

3 – M

10. Southern branch of the Silk Roads along the edge of the Taklamakan desert 11. Gansu province, China 12. Cross the great bend in the Yellow River and the Ordos Desert 13. Shangdu—Khubilai Khan’s capital, about 125 miles north of Beijing 14. Marco Polo’s first mission for Khubilai Khan takes him through central and southwest China (perhaps in 1276) 15. Marco’s book also contains accounts of his travels in eastern China—along the route of the Grand Canal and into modern Fujian province 16. In 1292, the Polos sail from south China for home. They accompany two princesses on their way to join the harem of a West Asian Mongol ruler. They reach Venice in the winter of 1295 (Based on Olschki 1960: 12-38)

222

10. Returns to Mecca via south India, Persian Gulf, Egypt (1346-1347) 11. Arrives home in Morocco in 1349 12. Trip across Sahara to Kingdom of Mali in West Africa in 1353 (Based on Dunn 1986: 1, 3)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

Web-Resources for Marco Polo Meets Ibn Battuta Marco Polo and His Travels http://www.silk-road.com/artl/marcopolo.shtml In the Footsteps of Marco Polo http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Marco/get_1.html The Travels of Ibn Battuta—A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Ibn_Battuta_Rihla.html Articles from Saudi Aramco World on Ibn Battuta’s travels http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/index/Subjects.aspx#I

UNIT 3 – M

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 3. Exchange of Goods and Ideas Along The Silk Roads

223

4. Religions Along The Silk Roads Unit N CENTRAL IDEAS OF BUDDHISM Unit O CENTRAL IDEAS OF ISLAM Unit P DUNHUANG AND ITS BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES

Unit Q XUANZANG’S PILGRIMAGE TO INDIA Unit R MAGICAL PILGRIMS ON THE SILK ROADS: THE ADVENTURE IN THE “CART-SLOW KINGDOM” FROM JOURNEY TO THE WEST

Unit N

THE CENTRAL IDEAS OF BUDDHISM

UNIT 4 – N

This unit consists of three lessons. Students will (1) read about the life of the Buddha and reﬂect on some very different ways of deﬁning success; (2) learn about the Bodhisattva ideal and the Bodhisattva Guanyin, the Buddhist “Goddess of Mercy”; and (3), look at the Buddhist view of morality. Carved Out of a Hillside in the Early Eighth Century, the Leshan Buddha near Chengdu (Sichuan province), Is over Two Hundred Feet High

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Renqiu Yu, 2002)

LESSON 1 THE STORY OF THE BUDDHA AND THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS Essential Question: How might the story of the Buddha’s life make us reconsider our understanding of success? Learning Experience: Students will see how the Buddha’s life story embodies two contrasting views of success. They will also think about how the Four Noble Truths might change our perspective concerning worldly goals. Anticipatory Set: Students will read “The Story of the Buddha” as a success story. The Buddha’s life begins with one kind of success: He is born a prince—wealthy, handsome, and of high social status. It ends with another kind of success—religious enlightenment, and freedom from suffering, old age, and death.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

227

In the course of their reading, students will consider the essential question: How might the story of the Buddha’s early life make us reconsider our own understanding of success? UNIT 4 – N

Context: The story of Buddhism begins in the sixth and ﬁfth centuries BCE with Siddhartha Gautama (Siddhartha was his ﬁrst name, Gautama his family name), a prince whose father ruled a kingdom located in what is today Nepal. At the age of twenty-nine, Siddhartha left the palace to become a wandering religious ascetic. He wanted to ﬁnd the source of human suffering—and the way to become free from it. At the age of thirty-ﬁve, he achieved enlightenment and became known as the “Buddha,” the “Enlightened One.” This was the beginning of the Buddhist religion. Buddhism is the ﬁrst world religion, a universal system of beliefs that spread to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia.

The Buddha’s teachings drew on fundamental concepts shared by practically all his contemporaries. Early Indian thought had evolved a view of humankind’s place in the universe based on some of the following ideas: Rebirth: “. . . upon death a person is neither annihilated nor transported to some other world in perpetuity, but rather returns to worldly life, to live and die again in a new mortal form. This continuing succession of life, death, and rebirth is termed samsara (circling, wandering) . . .”1 Karma: “What determines a person’s form of rebirth? Is there anything other than eternal rebirth?” Karma “means action in a very broad sense . . . the moral character of one’s actions in this lifetime determines the status of one’s rebirth in the next.” Liberation (or deliverance, moksha): “ . . . individuals may attain liberation through lack of desire, since desire is what engenders samsara in the ﬁrst place.” Liberation is achieved by doing away with involvement in the world: “. . . the renouncer . . . would leave home and family to live in relatively isolated and austere circ*mstances, sleeping on the ground, restricting the diet, practicing control of the breath, and bringing the senses under control . . . withdrawing from all that might bind one to the world, with the ultimate goal of escaping from rebirth itself ” (Davis 1999: 16, 17). The goal of every Buddhist is “Nirvana.” Nirvana literally means “a blowing out” (like a candle) or “extinction.” Buddhism offers salvation from rebirth, and Nirvana is the end of rebirth. The path to freedom is expressed in the Four Noble Truths: 1. The Noble Truth of . . . suffering is this: Birth is suffering; aging is suffering; sickness is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief, and despair are suffering; association with the unpleasant is suffering; dissociation from the pleasant is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering . . . 2 2. The Noble Truth of the origin of suffering is this: It is this thirst (craving) which produces re-existence and re-becoming, bound up with passionate greed, it ﬁnds fresh delight now here and now there . . . 3. The Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering is this: It is the complete cessation of that very thirst, giving it up, renouncing it, emancipating oneself from it, detaching oneself from it.

228

“Reincarnation” and “transmigration” are also commonly used instead of “rebirth.” But since Buddhists do not believe in the existence of a self, it is better to translate samsara as “rebirth.”

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

4. The Noble Truth of the Path leading to the Cessation of suffering is this: It is simply the Eightfold Path, namely right view; right thought; right speech; right action; right livelihood; right effort; right mindfulness; right concentration (Rahula 1959: 93).

UNIT 4 – N

Although realizing Nirvana is the goal of every Buddhist, few people can withdraw from the world and devote themselves entirely to a religious life. The Five Precepts are the minimal obligations that make a person a Buddhist: 1. Do not take life. 2. Do not steal or take anything that belongs to others. Prevent others from proﬁting from human suffering or the suffering of other species on Earth. 3. Do not engage in sexual misconduct. 4. Do not lie, speak poorly of others, or gossip. Practice loving speech and active listening. 5. Do not use alcohol and recreational drugs. These obligations apply to both monks and laypeople (“householders”). Although Buddhism warns against attachment to things, it is neither a pessimistic faith nor does it deny people success or the enjoyment of worldly pleasures. It does, however, emphasize to lay followers that worldly goals are never pursued without a concern for morality: If you want honor, wealth, or, after death, a blissful life among the gods, Then take good care that you observe the precepts of a moral life (Dharmapada, 4b.; Conze 1959: 84). Rationale: This lesson introduces basic concepts of Buddhism through the life of Siddhartha Gautama. It asks students to compare conventional notions of success with the success embodied in the Buddha’s life story.

The British Museum—Illuminating World Cultures The British Museum’s website has a section on ancient India that tells the life story of the Buddha in simple words and pictures. The visuals consist of Buddhist art from the museum’s collection. http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/buddha/story/sto_set.html

Time: One class period. Instructional Resources: “Story of the Buddha” (Handout for Lesson 1, pp. 234-235); Story Map and Note Taking Guide (pp. 236-237). Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: Have students read the story of the Buddha (pp. 234-235). As they read, they will:

• 2

Use the Story Map on p. 236 to map the structure of the story.

The Sanskrit word “dukha” is usually translated as “suffering.” This is probably too strong. “Unsatisfactory” or “unsatisfactoriness” is more accurate.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

229

• •

UNIT

Use the Note Taking Guide to detail the two types of success the story embodies. Make sure students refer to speciﬁc passages in the story as part of their responses. Go over the Four Noble Truths at the end.

4 – N

Whole Group Reflection: What do the Four Noble truths have to say about success? Instructional Modification: Read the story of the Buddha out loud for auditory learners. Write the following question on the board for visual learners: How would the Buddha respond to our lists? Application: Students create a T-chart entitled “Success,” and make a list of ﬁve things that Americans regard as success. How would the Buddha respond to our lists? Head of the Leshan Buddha

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Renqiu Yu, 2004)

LESSON 2 MAHAYANA BUDDHISM AND THE BODHISATTVA GUANYIN Essential Question: Who is Guanyin and what does she tell us about how people ﬁnd solutions to the problems of life? Learning Experience: In reading two brief texts about Guanyin, the most beloved ﬁgure in East Asian Buddhism, students will learn about both the Bodhisattva ideal and the devotional side of Buddhism.3

In learning about Guanyin, students will gain insight into “self-power” and “other-power,” two basic aspects of religious practice. Context: In the Mahayana tradition, there is a belief in beings who delay their entrance into nirvana in order to help others reach enlightenment. These beings, called bodhisattvas (bodhi is “wisdom,” sattva is “being”), take on god-like qualities. 3

230

To enrich students’ understanding of Guanyin, the following video, filmed on location in China, is an excellent resource: Kuan-yin Pilgrimage (R.C. Video, 56 minutes, 1988).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

One of the most beloved bodhisattvas in East Asia is the deity Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy. In Indian scriptures, Guanyin was originally male. In China, however, Guanyin becomes a female ﬁgure. She listens to the sounds of the world and hears the cries of suffering. Her goal is to help all sentient beings. She is the epitome of compassion and represents some of the new religious ideas that Mahayana Buddhism brought to China:

UNIT 4 – N

The idea of Guanyin—a compassionate universal savior who responds to anyone’s cry for help regardless of class, gender, or even moral qualiﬁcations—was an idea unfamiliar to the Chinese. This was a new deity who could not only bring spiritual enlightenment, but also save one from worldly difficulties and grant one material satisfactions as well as a “good death” and postmortem salvation. No native god or goddess in China prior to Guanyin possessed all these abilities (Yu 2001: 5). Rationale: Students will compare two ways of coping with the problems of life, what Buddhism refers to as “self-power” and “other-power.”

“Other-power” is when we entrust ourselves to bodhisattvas, saints, or other spiritual beings through prayer, making vows, etc. “Self-power” involves personal effort—in Buddhist terms, this refers to following the Five Precepts (p. 242) or to meditation and other practices that lead to enlightenment. Modern society has its own types of self-power and other-power. Hundreds of self-help books are published every year; people also consult counselors, psychologists, psychiatrists, and so forth. As for other -power, many people still turn to traditional religion or seek out psychics, astrologers, and the like. Time: One class period. Instructional Resources: This lesson consists of two brief texts:

• A passage about Guanyin’s powers from the Lotus Sutra, one of the central texts of East Asian Mahayana Buddhism. •

A Chinese miracle story: Guanyin saves a condemned criminal (ﬁfth to sixth century CE).

Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Anticipatory Set: What is the difference between solving problems by “self-power” and “otherpower?” Ask students: Why do people pray or make vows to bodhisattvas, saints, and other religious ﬁgures? Why do people go to social workers or family counseling? What is the saint’s role? What is the counselor’s role? Procedure: Deﬁne bodhisattva as a being who delays entering nirvana in order to help others achieve it. One important bodhisattva is Guanyin, the Goddess of Mercy.

Make two columns on the board: label the ﬁrst “self-power”; the second “other-power.” Tell students that in reading about Guanyin, they will learn about “other-power.” Read the two texts and answer the questions. Whole Group Reflection: After reading the two selections, have students deﬁne “other- power” and give additional examples (saints in Catholicism, for example) for the blackboard.

What is the difference between entrusting ourselves to Guanyin (“other-power”) and seeking the help of a guidance counselor or psychologist (“self-power”)? PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

231

Have students give examples of “self-power” for the blackboard list. UNIT 4 – N

Instructional Modification: The teacher can read the two passages out loud to students, or split students into groups and have them read only one excerpt. One group can read Section 1 and answer questions 1, 2, and 4, the other group can read Section 2 and answer questions 2, 3, and 4. Application: Write your own story about a miracle of Guanyin.

LESSON 3 BUDDHIST MORAL TEACHINGS Essential Questions: How do Buddhists deﬁne right and wrong, good and evil, and moral behavior? For Buddhists, what is a moral life? Learning Experience: Students will learn about basic Buddhist ethical and moral concepts—the Eightfold Path, the Four Noble Truths, and the Five Precepts. Anticipatory Set: Is Buddhist morality universal, applicable to all times and cultures? Context: Buddhism offers salvation from rebirth through Nirvana, the end of rebirth. This is accomplished by realizing the true nature of existence, what Buddhists call “Wisdom.” The key to achieving Wisdom is meditation, part of the Eightfold Path. The goal of meditation is

. . . cleansing the mind of impurities and disturbances, such as lustful desires, hatred, ill-will, indolence, worries and restlessness, skeptical doubts, and cultivating such qualities as concentration, awareness, intelligence, will, energy, the analytical faculty, conﬁdence, joy, tranquility, leading ﬁnally to the attainment of the highest wisdom which sees the nature of things as they are, and realizes . . . Nirvana (Rahula 1974: 67, 68). These goals are difficult to achieve, particularly for lay followers unable to become monks or nuns. Consequently, Buddhism is also concerned with life in the world. The Eightfold Path, the Four Noble Truths, and the Five Precepts give the fundamental concepts of Buddhist thought and their relation to living a good life: • • •

The Four Noble Truths explain why people should devote themselves to a religious life. The Eightfold Path describes this religious life in detail. The Five Precepts outline the minimum conduct required of Buddhists.

These ideas are based on three important concepts that Buddhism inherited from Indian religious thought: • • •

Rebirth: When a person dies, he or she returns to life to live and then to die again. Karma: A person’s form of rebirth depends on how moral a life he or she has previously lived. This is called “karma,” Sanskrit for “action.” Liberation: People can be freed from being continually born and reborn by learning to be without desires (Davis 1999: 16, 17).

Since the concepts of karma, rebirth, and liberation inform the moral and religious lives of Buddhists throughout the world, the Buddhist answers to questions such as “Why do I do the things I do?” and

232

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

“What should I do to lead a good life?” (see the Handout, p. 243) attempt to place everyday conduct and morality within a universal and cosmic scheme. UNIT

Rationale: Students will examine the foundations of Buddhist morality—the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, and the Five Precepts. They will explore their own moral beliefs and compare them with the reasons that Buddhism gives for living morally.

4 – N

Time: One or two class periods. Instructional Resources: Two handouts, “Basic Buddhism and Buddhist Morality” (The Four Noble Truths, the Eight Fold Path, and the Five Precepts), and “Buddhist Moral Behavior—Student Questionnaire.” Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: Working in pairs or small groups, students read “Basic Buddhism and Buddhist Morality” and ﬁll in the questionnaire. They should discuss and compare answers.

In answering the question in Column 4, “Why do I do it or not do it?,” students should be encouraged to look at personal experience, family life, religion, their community, American culture as a whole, and so forth. The class should then go over the questionnaire together and ﬁnally ask “Why would Buddhists do it or not do it?,” using the Four Noble Truths, the Eight Fold Path, and the Five Precepts as a guide. Whole Group Reflection: Does Buddhist morality differ from your own (or your community’s) understanding of morality? Where does it agree or disagree? Do Buddhist reasons for behaving well differ from your or your community’s reasons? Application(s): Write a letter to yourself from a Buddhist monk giving you advice based on the Eightfold Path or have students develop a television series teaching Buddhist morality. Side view of the Leshan Buddha’s head

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Renqiu Yu, 2004)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

233

LESSON 1: HANDOUT UNIT 4 – N

THE STORY OF THE BUDDHA 1 1. A young prince of the Shakya clan named Siddhartha was born in Northern India in the sixth century BCE. Shortly after he was born, a fortuneteller visited the palace and told the king, his father, that Siddhartha would either be a great ruler, or a man devoted to seeking religious truth. His father was worried that Siddhartha might leave the kingdom. He decided to make him so happy that he would never have reason to leave. The King surrounded him with beautiful women to tempt and entertain him. He thought that Siddhartha would never want to go anywhere outside the palace. The King also arranged for Siddhartha to be married. In time, Siddhartha’s wife had a son named Rahula. 2. But Siddhartha became curious about the world outside the palace. He set his heart on journeying beyond its walls. Hearing about his son’s plan, the king arranged a pleasure trip. He commanded that all common folk with any type of affliction should be kept away from the royal road in order to protect his son. At the beginning, Siddhartha was greeted by all the king’s joyful subjects. It seemed to him that the whole world was as content as he was. As Siddhartha continued, however, he came upon three people. First he encountered a very old man. The man was wrinkled, decrepit, and bent with age. Siddhartha asked his charioteer about the man. The charioteer explained that old age will come to everyone and that it cannot be stopped. The young prince shuddered at the idea and contemplated its meaning. Siddhartha next encountered someone who was ill. The man was burning and trembling with fever, coughing so uncontrollably that he could scarcely catch his breath. Again, Siddhartha was dismayed at suffering in the midst of a world that seemed so full of joy to him. He was amazed that people continued living at a leisurely pace when the threat of illness was so near. The Mudra Symbolizing “Beyond Misery”

(Source: Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc.)

Mudras are hand gestures used in Buddhist sculpture and painting to symbolize various ideas and actions. (To learn more about mudras, visit http://www.buddhanet.net/mudras.htm) 4

234

Loosely based on passages in “The Legend of the Shakyamuni Buddha.” In Edward Conze (tr.), Buddhist Scriptures. London: Penguin Books, 1958, pp. 35-56.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Then Siddhartha came upon a funeral procession with family members wailing in mourning. He was so touched by this display of emotion that it became difficult to go on. He kept asking himself, “How can people continue in their everyday lives when they are surrounded by such suffering? How can I enjoy the pleasures of the palace knowing that we cannot escape illness, old age and death? These pleasures that we seek are truly impermanent.”

UNIT 4 – N

Finally he met a wandering beggar, a man who had given up his family, home, and possessions in order to seek enlightenment. 3. After leaving the palace, Siddhartha joined a group of men who called themselves “ascetics.” They practiced meditation, fasted, and denied themselves all the comforts of life that ordinary people loved. After a time, Siddhartha realized that this path of self-denial was not the answer. It was just an extreme—as extreme as seeking pleasure by doing everything one wanted to do. Siddhartha was looking for a Middle Path between these two extremes. 4. After leaving the ascetics, he had to nurse himself back to health as a result of their practices. He sought shelter under a Bodhi (“wisdom”) tree. While meditating under the Bodhi tree, Siddhartha recalled all of his past lives. He reﬂected on the passing away of all living things, and “in the supreme nobility of his mind, he performed an act of supreme pity.” It was then that he attained nirvana and became the Buddha, or “Enlightened One.” While meditating, the Buddha realized the Four Noble Truths: 1. All life is full of suffering. It is imperfect, impermanent. Suffering can occur at any moment without warning. 2. Suffering is caused by desire, something Buddhists call “thirst” or “craving.” This thirst can be not only for long life, pleasure, wealth, and power, but also for ideas, opinions, and beliefs. Being attached to these things makes us unhappy, because none of them last forever. For example, we are attached to looking young and will do anything to stay young, even though everyone must age. 3. To end suffering, we must end desire. We must truly realize that the world is impermanent. 4. To end desire, we must follow the Eightfold Path. This is the “Middle Path” that avoids extremes. It consists of right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

235

THE STORY OF THE BUDDHA (continued from the previous page.)

UNIT

STORY MAP

4 – N

The setting: Where and when does the story take place?

Who are the main characters?

Statement of the problem:

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

Event 4

Event 5

Statement of the solution:

Values brought out in the story:

236

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Note-Taking Guide: The Story of the Buddha As you read, use the following chart to record information regarding the different types of success the story discusses.

The Buddha’s “Old Life”

UNIT 4 – N

The Buddha’s “New Life”

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

237

LESSON 2: HANDOUT UNIT 4 – N

DOCUMENT 1: A PASSAGE FROM THE LOTUS SUTRA * The Lotus Sutra is one of the most widely read Buddhist texts in East Asia. Notice that in the second paragraph, Guanyin is referred to as “he.” This is because Guanyin was originally a male deity in India. Later, over a period of centuries in China, Guanyin became a female.

A bodhisattva asked the Buddha, “Why is Guanyin called the Perceiver of the World’s Sounds?” The Buddha said to him, “Good man, suppose there are immeasurable hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, millions of living beings who are undergoing various trials and suffering. If they hear of this Bodhisattva Perceiver of the World’s Sounds and single-mindedly call his name, then at once he will perceive the sound of their voices and they will all gain deliverance from their trials . . . The Mudra for “Compassion”

(Source: Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. http://www.buddhanet.net)

If there should be living beings beset by numerous lusts and cravings, let them think with constant reverence of Guanyin Perceiver of the World’s Sounds, and then they can shed their rage. If they have great ignorance and stupidity, let them think with constant reverence of the Boddhisattva Guanyin, and they can rid themselves of stupidity . . . . . . “Guanyin has succeeded in acquiring beneﬁts such as these and, taking on a variety of different forms, goes about among the lands saving living beings . . .” (Adapted from de Bary 1999: 455).

1. What do people need to do to be saved from suffering by Guanyin?

238

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 2: A GUANYIN MIRACLE STORY* UNIT

Gao Xun of Rongyang was arrested at the age of ﬁfty for murder. He was locked up in a dungeon and had resigned himself to death. Another prisoner, however, urged that they together strive to concentrate on Guanyin. Xun answered, “My crime is extremely heavy and I have made up my mind to die. How could I possibly be saved?” His fellow prisoner instructed him, saying he should begin by making a mental oath: He would abandon evil and do good, and he would concentrate his thoughts on Guanyin without a single lapse. If he received pardon and release, he vowed, he would erect a ﬁvestory pagoda . . . and would make donations to the sangha [the community of monks].

4 – N

Then he applied his mind for a week, after which time his shackles fell loose. The warden was startled and afraid. He told Xun: “If the Buddha and the gods are indeed taking pity on you, then let them stop your execution.” On the day of his execution, the blade of the [executioner’s] sword broke (de Bary 1999: 531-532).

1. Why does Gao Xun think he can’t be saved?

2. What does his fellow prisoner tell Gao Xun to do?

3. Write down four adjectives to describe Guanyin.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

239

LESSON 3: HANDOUT UNIT 4 – N

BASIC BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST MORALITY The basic beliefs of Buddhism and the Buddhist view of morality are contained in the “The Four Noble Truths,” “The Eightfold Path,” “The Three Treasures,” and “The Five Precepts.” In pre-modern India and China, people frequently classiﬁed things using numbers. Since very few were able to read, numbering things made them easier to memorize and recite. “Morality” can be deﬁned as “doing what is right.” Buddhism attempts to answer important questions that come from this simple deﬁnition: • •

“Why do I do the things I do?” “What should I do to lead a good life?” In Buddhist terms, this question would be, “What should I do to lead a good life and achieve liberation from rebirth?”

The Four Noble Truths: Why Do I Do the Things I Do? The Buddhist answer to this question is based on three important concepts that Buddhism inherited from Indian religious thought: Rebirth: When a person dies, he or she returns to life to live and die again. Karma: A person’s form of rebirth depends on how moral a life he or she has previously lived. This is called “karma,” Sanskrit for “action.” Liberation: People can be freed from being continually born and reborn by learning to be without desires (Davis 1999: 16, 17). The Four Noble Truths were preached by the Buddha in his first sermon. They are the heart of Buddhist teaching and explain why people should devote themselves to a religious life. 1.

All life is full of suffering. It is imperfect, impermanent and empty. Suffering can occur at any moment without warning. Buddhism isn’t a pessimistic faith because it doesn’t deny that life contains happiness. What it emphasizes, however, is that pleasures aren’t permanent.

240

Suffering is caused by desire, something Buddhists call “thirst” or “craving.” This thirst can be not only for long life, pleasure, wealth, and power, but also for ideas, opinions, beliefs, etc. Being attached to these things makes us unhappy, because none of them last forever. For example, we are attached to looking young and will do anything to stay young, even though everyone ages.

To end suffering, we must end desire. We must truly realize that the world is impermanent.

To end desire, we must follow the Eightfold Path. This is the “Middle Path” that avoids extremes. It consists of right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

The Mudra for “Fearlessness” UNIT 4 – N

(Source: Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. http://www.buddhanet.net)

•

The Eightfold Path describes what Buddhists regard as a religious life. It answers the question “What should I do to lead a good life and to achieve liberation from rebirth?”

The Eightfold Path— “What Should I Do to Lead a Good Life and Achieve Liberation From Rebirth?” The Eightfold Path can be divided into three parts:

1. 2.

Wisdom Right knowledge—the Four Noble Truths (p. 240) Right thinking—Be compassionate and dedicated to love and non-violence.

3. 4. 5.

Morality Right speech—Do not slander, be verbally abusive, gossip or lie. Right conduct—Follow the Five Precepts (p. 242). Right livelihood—Work at something that doesn’t harm other living things and doesn’t profit from the suffering of others.

6. 7. 8.

Meditation Right effort—Be positive and avoid negative thinking Right mindfulness—Be aware of your body, your feelings, and your thoughts. Right concentration—Practice meditation in order to reach various stages of mental concentration and, ultimately, enlightenment. Some Buddhist writings compare the mind to a wild horse. Meditation aims at taming this wild horse. It removes hatred and laziness, worries and doubts. It replaces them with “concentration, awareness, intelligence, will, energy, confidence, joy, tranquility, leading finally to the attainment of the highest wisdom which sees the nature of things as they are, and realizes . . . Nirvana” (Rahula 1974: 67, 68). Buddhism offers salvation from rebirth, and Nirvana is the end of rebirth. For Buddhists, this is the path to freedom.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

241

BASIC BUDDHISM AND BUDDHIST MORALITY (continued from the previous page.)

UNIT 4 – N

•

Following the Eightfold Path requires relying on the Three Treasures. These are the three divisions of the Buddhist faith. The Three Treasures The Three Treasures took root everywhere that Buddhism spread in Asia. • • •

The Buddha—The historical Buddha whose personal name was Siddhartha Gautama. The Sangha—The community of monks. The Dharma—The Buddhist Law. The Buddha is the doctor, the Dharma is the medicine, and the Sangha are the nurses. It is the Buddha who finds the path to liberation and shows it to others. The Dharma is the path itself, and the Sangha are one’s companions who offer assistance along the way (Lopez 1999: 64).

In order to become a Buddhist, a person declares their faith through a ritual called “Taking Refuge in the Three Treasures.” He or she says: I take refuge in the Buddha; I take refuge in the Dharma; I take refuge in the Sangha. After this, the person will then accept the Five Precepts, the basic beliefs observed by all Buddhists.

•

The Five Precepts outline the basics of moral conduct. The Five Precepts

Not everyone can become a monk or nun, devoting their life to study and meditation. The Five Precepts were the minimum obligations for monks and laypeople. They also answer the question “What should I do to lead a good life and to achieve liberation from rebirth?”

242

Do not kill anything (human, beast, or bug). It is worse to kill larger animals because more force is involved.

Do not steal or take anything that belongs to others. Prevent others from profiting from human suffering or the suffering of other species on Earth.

Do not engage in sexual misconduct.

Do not lie, speak poorly of others, or gossip. Practice loving speech and active listening.

Do not use alcohol and recreational drugs.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

LESSON 3 : ACTIVITY UNIT

BUDDHIST MORALITY—STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRE

4 – N

After studying “Basic Buddhism and Buddhist Morality” (pp. 240-242), ﬁll in the following questionnaire. •

Column 1 lists twelve things that people might or might not do.

•

Column 2 asks you to answer “yes” or “no” to whether these actions are right or wrong from a Buddhist point of view.

•

Column 3 asks you to say whether these actions are related to the Four Noble Truths (FNT), the Eightfold Path (EP), or the Five Precepts (FP). (Some actions can fall into more than one category.)

•

Column 4 asks: Why do I do this or not do it?

Actions What do I do?

Yes — No

FNT — EP — FP

Why do I do it or not do it? Your answer can draw on personal experience, family, religion, your community, or American culture as a whole.

1. Talking about people behind their backs. 2. Forcing opinions on others, insisting you are right. 3. Deciding not to buy a new jacket. 4. Setting traps for mice. 5. Practicing abstinence (“Just say no.”). 6. Taking things that don’t belong to you. 7. Volunteer work at a home for the elderly. 8. Exercising instead of taking diet pills. 9. Killing a spider. 10. Never lying.

•

After ﬁnishing this questionnaire, the whole class will try to answer the following question: “Why would Buddhists do it or not do it?”

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

243

Unit O

THE CENTRAL IDEAS OF ISLAM

This unit consists of two lessons. Students will learn about (1) the life of the Prophet Muhammad (c. 570-632) and the establishment of the Muslim community, and (2) the “Five Pillars” which comprise the basic religious practices of Islam.1 UNIT 4 – O

LESSON 1 MUHAMMAD AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MUSLIM RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY Essential Question: What role did the Prophet Muhammad play in the rise of Islam? Learning Experience: Students will learn about the life of the Prophet Muhammad and his role in the establishment of the early Muslim community. Context: Although most of the Arabian peninsula is a desert, in pre-modern times its people were very much connected to the rest of the Middle East (see Map F and Map I). Mecca, the city of the Prophet Muhammad’s birth, was a trading center connecting Arabia with the homelands of ancient Near Eastern civilization, today modern Syria, Iraq, and Egypt. In Muhammad’s time, with the exception of Iraq, these areas were provinces of the Byzantine Empire. As middlemen, the merchants of Mecca traded in goods from as far away as China and India.

In terms of religion, the people of pre-Islamic Arabia were polytheists—they worshipped many gods. The Ka’aba in Mecca was the center of Arabia’s pre-Islamic faith. Believed to have been built by the Prophet Abraham, the Ka’aba housed hundreds of idols worshiped by the various Arab tribes. At the time of Muhammad’s birth (c. 570), the tribe his clan belonged to had the important task of guarding and overseeing the idols in the Ka’aba. Today, the Ka’aba is the most sacred place in Islam. Every Muslim who makes the pilgrimage to Mecca walks around the Ka’aba seven times. He or she is also required to kiss and touch the Black Stone of Mecca in the eastern corner of the Ka’aba. It is believed that the stone was once white, but turned black from absorbing the sins of pilgrims. In cities such as Mecca, Arabs would have contact with small populations of monotheistic Christians and Jews. In addition, Arab merchants were in touch not only with neighboring regions where Jews and Christians had been living for centuries, but also with Persia, whose pre-Islamic faith, Zoroastrianism, inﬂuenced both Judaism and Christianity. Although the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula were desert nomads, Islam was born in an urban, mercantile setting. By the early seventh century—about a hundred years after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, Arab armies had established an empire stretching from Spain to Central Asia. 1

244

Some teachers might be interested in using: Denny, Frederick M., and Abdulaziz A. Sachedina. Islamic Ritual Practices: A Slide Set and Teacher’s Guide. Asian Religions Media Resources, Vol. 7. New Haven: Paul Vieth Christian Education Service of the Yale Divinity School, 1983.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Lacking an organized, official clergy, Muslims understand their faith as . . . part of God’s merciful providence, present from all eternity but revealed at various moments in history through the agency of His Chosen Prophets. Muhammad was one of these latter, a mere man singled out by God—the divine name in Arabic, Allah, may obscure the fact that this is in truth the same universal God that spoke to Abraham, Moses, and Jesus—to communicate His ﬁnal message to His creation. These revealed messages, warnings, and signs for all mankind were communicated verbatim and in Arabic to Muhammad over the course of some twenty-two years and are collectively called in Arabic al-Qur’an or “The Recitation.” . . . The essence of the message is simple. It is a warning to submit (aslama, whence the noun “submission,” islam) to the will of God . . . For him who does submit, the muslim, there awaits eternal reward in Paradise; for the disbeliever or inﬁdel (kaﬁr), eternal damnation in Hell (Peters 1994: 3).

UNIT 4 – O

The Words “Islam” and “Muslim” “Islam” is Arabic for surrender or submission. A Muslim is “one who has surrendered” to God (Denny 1994: 390, 392).

Rationale: This lesson introduces students to the story of Muhammad and the beginnings of Islam in the Arabian peninsula. Time: One or two forty-minute sessions. Instructional Resources: Reading selections and questions on “Muhammad and the Muslim Religious Community.” Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Anticipatory Set: Show students the Shahada or “Testimony” (p. 251). Explain that the writing is Arabic calligraphy. Read the translation:

There is no god but God. Muhammad is the messenger of God. Ask students what this means. Have the class deﬁne “monotheism” in the context of the ﬁrst sentence. What religions are monotheistic in addition to Islam? What does “messenger” mean here? Discuss the word “prophet” as a synonym of “messenger” (the word “prophet” comes from Greek; it means “before”). What does “revelation” mean? Procedure: Divide the class into pairs and have each pair read and discuss “Muhammad and the Muslim Religious Community” (pp. 248-250). The pairs should then answer the questions.

At the end of the activity, look at the Shahada once more. Has the interpretation of key terms and concepts changed or been further reﬁned? Whole Group Reflection: Compare the life and mission of Muhammad to that of the Buddha (see PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

245

Unit N, “Story of the Buddha,” pp. 234-235). Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the areas of similarity and differences. Make a timeline for each leader and compare results. Instructional Modification: The teacher may read the passages from the Qur’an aloud. Where necessary, the language of the reading may be simpliﬁed or adapted. The reading may also be assigned for homework. Application: Almost one out of every ﬁve people in the world today is Muslim. Have students identify the various countries around the world that have signiﬁcant Muslim populations.2 Have them choose two to compare and contrast geographically, economically, politically, and so forth. UNIT 4 – O

LESSON 2 WHAT ARE THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM? Essential Question: What does a person have to do in order to be considered a Muslim? Learning Experience: What are the Five Pillars of Islam? Context: The Five Pillars are the basic obligations for all Muslims: 1. The Declaration of Faith (Shahada)

There is no god but God. Muhammad is the messenger of God. This “testimony” . . . is the closest thing to a creed in Islam. It is sufficient simply to utter it once in one’s life, freely and as a believer, to become a Muslim (Denny 1994: 107). 2. The Worship Service (Salat)

The foundation of Muslim devotion is the ritual prayer service known as salat . . . Although in English the term is often simply translated as “prayer,” that is a little misleading if it means the personal type of prayers of petition, intercession, or invocation associated with private Christian devotion . . . The salat is an intense, highly regulated, formal observance that features cycles of bodily postures climaxing in complete prostration in an orientation toward the Kaa’ba in Mecca (Denny 1994: 119). 3. Legal Almsgiving (Zakat)

The zakat is a legal, obligatory act and considered part of one’s service to God . . . Zakat is not to be confused with charity . . . Muslims are commanded to give charity often and freely . . . Zakat, however, is more like a tax payable once a year and computed as a percentage of one’s various forms of wealth . . . The Arabic word zakat has as one of its meanings “purity” . . . That is, the wealth is puriﬁed for the use of its owner. If no zakat has been paid on it during the year in which, according to Islamic law, it was due, then the property is considered to be illicitly held and “unclean.” This . . . is a powerful symbol of Islam’s sense of community (Denny 1994: 125).

246

One place to start might be http://islam.about.com/library/weekly/aa120298.htm

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

4. Fasting During the Holy Month of Ramadan (Sawm)

One of the Muslim’s best-known religious acts is the month-long daytime fast during the ninth lunar month of Ramadan. From before dawn until sunset, those who are observing the fast are forbidden from eating, drinking, smoking, and marital relations. Fasting in Ramadan is a demanding spiritual discipline and enhances one’s awareness of one’s dependence on God and essential similarity with other human beings, especially the poor and the hungry. Ramadan is the most sacred month in the Muslim calendar. In addition to being the time when the Qur’an ﬁrst descended, it was also the month during which the fateful Battle of Badr took place [624, a decisive victory for the Muslims against their foes from Mecca] (Denny 1994: 126, 127).

UNIT 4 – O

5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Haj)

The pilgrimage to Mecca during the holy pilgrimage month of Dhu al-Hijja is held annually. It is required in each Muslim’s lifetime, but only if he or she is legally an adult, as well as both physically and ﬁnancially capable (Denny 1994: 130). Rationale: Students are introduced to the core practices of Islam. Time: One to two forty-minute lessons. Instructional Resources: Readings on the “Five Pillars,” two student activities. The class can also refer to the reading in the ﬁrst lesson, “Muhammad and the Muslim Religious Community,” and look at the following two websites for further discussion of the Five Pillars: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/index.shtml http://www.islamicity.com/education/understandingislamandmuslims/ Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Anticipatory Set: Tell the class that being a Muslim involves a relationship with God and a relationship with the umma, or community of Muslims. In studying the Five Pillars, which things can be described as personal, relating to God? Which things can be described as social, connecting the individual to the religious community? Procedure: Divide the class into pairs and have each pair read the material on the Five Pillars and do the two activities. The class will then discuss the questions and answers as a group. Whole Group Reflection: The Five Pillars are a practice connecting Muslims both to God and to a worldwide religious community. Discuss which of the Pillars relate to each of these two goals. Do any of the ﬁve relate to more than a single goal? Instructional Modification: Printed handouts from the indicated web sites can be used. Depending on the level of the class, additional web materials may be added. This assignment can also be done as homework. Application: There are more than one billion Muslims worldwide. How do the Five Pillars connect Muslims from widely different societies and cultures into a single religious community?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

247

Student Handout: Reading for Lesson 1

MUHAMMAD AND THE MUSLIM RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY* 1. Muhammad (c. 570-632) was born in Mecca. Muslims regard him as the last in a line of prophets that began with Adam and includes Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. To Muslims, Muhammad is only a messenger of God, not an object of worship: Muhammad is only a messenger, and many a Messenger has gone before him. So what if he dies or is killed? Will you turn back and go away in haste? (Qur’an 5: 144; Peters 1994: 159)

UNIT 4 – O

2. Little is known of Muhammad’s early life. It is believed that he helped guard the caravan routes, ensuring the safe passage of cargo from Mecca to other locations. The earliest biography of Muhammad has the following story: 3.

When my mother was carrying me she saw a light proceeding from her, which showed her the castles of Syria, . . . and while I was with a (foster) brother of mine behind our tents shepherding the lambs, two men in white clothing came to me with a gold basin full of snow. Then they seized me and opened my bosom, extracted my heart and split it; then they extracted a black drop from it and threw it away; then they washed my heart and my bosom with the snow until they had thoroughly cleansed them (Adapted from Peters 1994: 45-46).

4. Around the year 610, Muhammad received his ﬁrst revelation. When it was the night on which God honored him with his mission and showed mercy on his Servants thereby, Gabriel brought him the command of God. “He came to me,” said the apostle of God, “while I was asleep, with a coverlet of brocade on which there was some writing, and said, “Recite!” I said, “What shall I recite?” He pressed me with it so tightly that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said, “Recite!” I said, “What shall I recite?” He pressed me with it again so that I thought it was death; then he let me go and said, “Recite!” I said, “What shall I recite?” He pressed me with it a third time so that I thought it was death and said, “Recite.” I said, “What then shall I recite”—and this I said only to deliver myself from him, lest he should do the same again. He said: Recite in the name of thy Lord who created, Who created man of blood coagulated. Read! Thy Lord is most beneﬁcent, Who taught by the pen, Taught that which they knew not to men (Qur’an 96: 1-5; Peters 1994: 51) 5. Muhammad spread his message ﬁrst to his wife and then to his closest friends. He began to gather a small group of followers in Mecca. 6. Over the next twenty years, Muhammad received further divine messages from Gabriel and recited them to his followers. They would memorize them and write them down. 7. Muslims believe that the messages delivered by the angel Gabriel in the Qur’an are the uncreated words of God. This is what distinguishes it from the Old and New Testaments. For Muslims, the message of these earlier books had been corrupted and changed by the many hands that had 248

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

touched the original word of God and his prophets. 8. Many in Mecca felt Muhammad and his followers were a threat to them and the idols they worshiped in the Ka’aba. At ﬁrst, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted. But more and more people started listening. 9. It is believed that some of the Prophet’s earliest teachings in Mecca are contained in words such as these from the Qur’an. Say: O you unbelievers, I do not worship what you worship, Nor do you worship Who I worship Nor will I worship what you worship, Nor will you worship Who I worship. To you your way; to me my way (Qur’an 109; Peters 1994: 56, 57)

UNIT 4 – O

10. As it grew, Islam had to reject passive resistance in the face of persecution by its rivals. This was an important event in the life of the early Muslim community. Permission is granted those who (take up arms) to ﬁght because they are oppressed. God is certainly able to give help to those who were driven away unjustly from their homes for no other reason than they said, “Our Lord is God.” And if God had not restrained some men through some others, monasteries, churches, synagogues and mosques, where the name of God is honored most, would have been destroyed (Qur’an 22: 39-41; Peters 1994: 71). 11. In 622, Muhammad and his followers left Mecca for Medina, a city to the north. This event is referred to as the Hijra (Arabic for “Migration”), and it marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the Muslim religious community (umma). At a crucial time in his own life Muhammad made his ﬁrst converts in Medina, and after a long set of negotiations was invited to come to the troubled city. Behind these agreements lay both acceptance of the Qur’an and its revelation . . . In a society with no common law or government and no authority higher than the chiefs of individual clans, feuding clans often selected someone reputed to have religious vision . . . (Lapidus 1988: 26-27).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

249

MUHAMMAD AND THE MUSLIM RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY* (continued from the previous page.)

Questions (The numbers in parentheses refer to the numbers before the sections of the readings.)

1. What other religions were essential to Muslim beliefs? (1) UNIT 4 – O

2. What does Muhammad’s work as a caravan guard imply about the economic life of Arab society? (2)

3. What does the black drop symbolize? (3)

4. What “mission” is Muhammad being prepared for? (4)

5. According to this passage, is becoming a prophet an easy thing? Indicate the words in the text supporting your answer. (4)

6. What does the term “uncreated” mean with respect to the Qur’an? (7)

7. There is a message of religious tolerance in this passage. Identify and describe it. (9)

8. How did Arab society differ from modern states and governments? (11)

250

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Student Handout: Reading for Lesson 2

THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM* The “Five Pillars” are the minimal obligations required of every Muslim.

1. The Declaration of Faith (Shahada) UNIT

There is no god but God. Muhammad is the messenger of God

4 – O

(Source: Islamic Paths) http://www.islamic-paths.org/Home/English/Discover/Pillars/Shahada/Calligraphy_Main.htm

The Arabic calligraphy above gives the words of the shahada (“testimony”). A declaration of faith, “It is sufficient simply to utter it once in one’s life, freely and as a believer, to become a Muslim” (Denny 1994: 107; Shahada written by the Turkish calligrapher Shekif, c. 1860.) Before Muhammad and the birth of Islam, the Arabs were polytheists. They worshipped many gods, including ancestors and spirits associated with nature and the stars and planets. Monotheism (belief in one God) was known in Arabia through contacts with the rest of the Middle East and the presence of small Jewish and Christian settlements. For Muslims, God is One and unique—nothing can be associated with him. Ideas such as the Christian Trinity—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—are unacceptable to Muslims (Denny 1994: 107). Since Muslims don’t approve of using the human ﬁgure in religious art, religious ideas and convictions are expressed through beautiful writing. Calligraphy is not only used to decorate mosques and other buildings, but also everyday objects. This use of calligraphy emphasizes the importance of Islam as a literary culture and the belief in the Qur’an as the uncreated word of God: Read in the name of your Lord who created, Created man from an embryo; Read, for your Lord is most beneﬁcent, Who taught by the pen, Taught man what he did not know (Qur’an 96: 1-5)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

251

THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM (continued from the previous page.)

2. The Worship Service (Salat) The Mihrab from the Mosque of Sinan Pasha in Syria (16th Century). The Mihrab Is a Niche in a Wall Pointing toward Mecca. It Shows Worshippers Where to Face for Prayer UNIT 4 – O

(Source: Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum. Image courtesy of Fine Arts Library, Harvard College Library)

Muslims are supposed to pray ﬁve times a day at ﬁxed times: (1) dawn, before sunrise; (2) midday, after the sun passes its highest; (3) the late part of the afternoon; (4) just after sunset; (5) between sunset and midnight. Through salat Muslims communicate with God: Recite what has been revealed to you of this Book, and be constant in devotion (Qur’an 29: 45) Salat is more than just voices raised in prayer, it also “features cycles of bodily postures climaxing in complete prostration in an orientation toward the Kaa’ba in Mecca” (Denny 1994: 119). The mihrab in a mosque (photo, above) showed people the proper direction in which to pray. They are called to prayer by the chanting of a man called a muezzin. The beginning of his chant goes as follows: God is most great, I testify that there is no god but God, I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God, Hurry to prayer, Hurry to salvation . . . (Denny 1994: 120). Modern technology has provided Muslims not near a mosque with ways of knowing the correct time for salat: through notiﬁcations on cell phones or pagers, and through computer programs, for instance. 252

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

3. Legal Almsgiving (Zakat)

The zakat is a legal, obligatory act and considered part of one’s service to God . . . Zakat is not to be confused with charity . . . Muslims are commanded to give charity often and freely . . . Zakat, however, is more like a tax payable once a year and computed as a percentage of one’s various forms of wealth . . . The Arabic word zakat has as one of its meanings “purity” . . . That is, the wealth is puriﬁed for the use of its owner. If no zakat has been paid on it during the year in which, according to Islamic law, it was due, then the property is considered to be illicitly held and “unclean.” This is a powerful symbol of Islam’s sense of community (Denny 1994: 25). Some of the reasons for zakat are to obey God, help people to become less attached to money and other material things, and to assist others:

UNIT 4 – O

Those who believe and do good deeds, and fulﬁll their devotional obligations and pay the zakat, have their reward with their Lord, and will have neither fear nor regret (Qur’an 2: 277). 4. Fasting During the Holy Month of Ramadan (Sawn)

Ramadan is the month in which the Qur’an was revealed as guidance to man and clear proof of the guidance, and criterion (of falsehood and truth). So when you see the new moon you should fast the whole month (Qur’an 2: 185). One of the Muslim’s best-known religious acts is the month-long daytime fast during the ninth lunar month of Ramadan. From before dawn until sunset, those who are observing the fast are forbidden from eating, drinking, smoking, and marital relations. Fasting in Ramadan is a demanding spiritual discipline and enhances one’s awareness of one’s dependence on God and essential similarity with other human beings, especially the poor and the hungry. Ramadan is the most sacred month in the Muslim calendar. In addition to being the time when the Qur’an ﬁrst descended, it was also the month during which the fateful Battle of Badr took place [624 CE, a decisive victory for the Muslims against their foes from Mecca] (Denny 1994: 126, 127).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

253

THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM (continued from the previous page.)

5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Haj) The Kaa’ba

UNIT 4 – O

(Source: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-matpc-04656)

Pilgrimages are common to all the major world religions. In Judaism, Christianity, and Islam . . . pilgrimage is a journey to a holy city. In Judaism, pilgrimage was a central ritual act deﬁning a person as a Jew. The Old Testament speciﬁed that every male was required to go to the Temple in Jerusalem three times a year (Naquin 1992: 1). The pilgrimage to Mecca during the holy pilgrimage month of Dhu al-Hijja is held annually. It is required in each Muslim’s lifetime, but only if he or she is legally an adult, as well as both physically and ﬁnancially capable (Denny 1994: 130). The Haj is a powerful symbol of the worldwide unity of the Muslim community. . .The unity of the Muslims is . . . seen in the white ihram garb that the male pilgrims are required to wear. [Women either wear clothes of their native countries or a similar, less revealing, white garment.] This two-piece seamless garment reduces its wearers to an essential oneness of status, erasing their distinctions based on wealth, education, class, language, and ethnicity (Denny 1994: 131). Pilgrims on the Haj perform a number of ritual acts. One of the central rituals is circumambulation (walking around) of the Kaa’ba. The Kaa’ba is a cube-shaped stone structure covered by a black cloth. It is located within the Great Mosque in Mecca. Islamic tradition says that it was built by Adam and rebuilt by Abraham; Abraham and his son Ishmael used to circle the Ka’aba, and so did the Prophet Muhammad. In one corner is a black stone that the Prophet used to touch. Pilgrims attempt to do the same. When we chose the site of the House for Abraham (We said:) “Associate no one with Me, and clean My House for those who will circumambulate it, stand (in reverence) and bow in homage (Qur’an: 22: 26)

254

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Activity 1: Matching Terms/Concepts

A. Match each of the following terms or concepts with one of the Five Pillars in the table below.

Five times a day Purity and wealth The Messenger Mihrab

Ka’aba Muezzin Wealth and community Circumambulation

Ramadan Calligraphy Monotheism

UNIT

Pillar

Terms/Concepts

4 – O

1. Shahada 2. Worship 3. Zakat 4. Fasting 5. Pilgrimage

Activity 2: Questions

1. What is a pillar? Why are the Five Pillars called “pillars”? 2. The shahada is sometimes called a “creed.” Look up “creed” in the dictionary and explain the shahada in terms of your definition.

3. In Islam there are no priests to lead people in the zakat. What does this say about the Muslim view of the relation between God and the faithful? 4. Explain why one of the meanings of “zakat” is “purity.” 5. What is the significance of the month of Ramadan? 6. What does fasting teach? 7. Is Islam the only faith that places importance on pilgrimage? Give one reason for going on a pilgrimage.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

255

Unit P

DUNHUANG AND ITS BUDDHIST COMMUNITIES

Essential Questions: What is the geographical and cultural importance of Dunhuang? What role did Buddhist monasteries play in the social and economic life of Dunhuang? Learning Experience: Students will determine the geographical importance of Dunhuang and examine the inﬂuence of Buddhism on society by looking at documents and wall paintings found in the Mogao caves. Anticipatory Set: How does religion involve itself with the community? In examining the relation between Buddhism and society in Dunhuang, students will see how Buddhist monasteries were closely connected to daily life.

UNIT 4 – P

Context: Dunhuang is located in the far west of China’s Gansu province, where the two branches of the Silk Roads that circled the Tarim Basin come together (see Maps A and Map D). In addition to being an important commercial town, Dunhuang was a center of Buddhism from 366 CE. It was one of the main points of entry from Central Asia into China for Buddhist missionaries and monks. The name “Dunhuang” means “blazing beacon.” This refers to the signal ﬁres set in watchtowers by Chinese troops.

Twelve miles outside of Dunhuang is a half-mile-long cliff that, over a thousand years, became studded with caves. Many of them are decorated with Buddhist murals. They are called the Mogao (“Peerless” or “None Loftier”) Caves or “The Caves of the Thousand Buddhas.” Legend says that a traveling monk named Le Zong came there and saw golden lights on top of a mountain. They looked like a thousand Buddhas. He recognized this as a holy place, carved out a cave in the mountain, and adorned it with murals. Later, another monk saw the cave and the murals. He carved out a second cave. Today, there are more than a thousand caves, but many have not survived because of the harsh climate. The earliest surviving one dates from 366 CE. The earliest painting and sculpture dates from about the ﬁfth century CE and continues on for almost a thousand years. Individuals among the Buddhist faithful frequently commissioned painting and sculpture for the caves. The townspeople of Dunhuang maintained close relations with the Buddhist monastic community. Monks provided services for the lay world: They recited sutras for the dead, practiced divination, provided medical treatment, and made use of magic spells. All of these things assisted people in coping with the uncertainties of everyday life. In return, the monks received donations of cloth or cash gifts to provide vegetarian feasts during holidays and other occasions throughout the year. Dunhuang’s monasteries earned money from industrial enterprises as well. The renting out of ﬂourmills set up on monastery land was an important source of income. Monasteries also ran the presses used to make oil for both cooking and for use in lamps. It is believed that such mills and oil presses provided all of Dunhuang’s ﬂour and oil (Gernet 1995: 142, 150, 152). Why is Buddhism, with its emphasis on freedom from worldly desires, so deeply involved in the world of commerce and money? The establishment of Buddhism in medieval China meant . . . the maintenance of an abundant monastic community and the construction of often sumptuous buildings [that] could only have been assured by a sizeable levy imposed on the 256

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

available wealth . . . its arrival also led to an increase in commercial and manufacturing activity at the expense of agriculture. The needs of the Buddhist community and laity favored certain businesses—especially those related to construction, the timber trade, dyeing products and others . . . the success of Buddhism in China had the effect of developing consumption and distribution . . . The monks themselves were a luxury (Gernet 1995: 14-15). Economic interaction between monks and townspeople can be seen in many of the manuscripts found in the Dunhuang caves. These caves, sealed up in the eleventh century CE and discovered by accident in 1900, are one of the great archaeological ﬁnds of the twentieth century. In addition to religious texts, there are contracts, tax registers, and other secular documents. The Dunhuang manuscripts are written in more than a dozen languages and scripts, something that shows the diversity of cultural exchange along the Silk Roads. Part A, Document 2 (pp. 260-261) shows students three Dunhuang manuscripts: •

(A) is a page from a paper book (dated 930) that has writing in both Chinese characters (left half ) and an alphabet used by the early Turks (right half ). The Turkic writing is a fortune-telling manual. People would throw dice or specially shaped bones and use this book to interpret the results. The text is written from right to left. The Chinese consists of verses on the life of the Buddha. Notice how Chinese characters are written over the Turkic text in the area within the computer-generated rectangle.

•

UNIT 4 – P

(B) is Tibetan writing. After Chinese, Tibetan is the most widely used language in the Dunhuang manuscripts. This is because Dunhuang was under Tibetan rule between 755 and 851. Tibetan writing was invented in the seventh century CE, based on writing used in India. This paper scroll is a Buddhist religious text. (A) and (B) are from a time when Dunhuang was controlled by the Tibetans and cut off from China. Consequently, high quality paper, not to mention books themselves, couldn’t be imported from China. Both of these documents were probably made and written in Dunhuang.1

•

(C) is another Buddhist text using Uyghur script with some Chinese. The Uyghurs are a Turkic people who established a Central Asian empire in the eighth and ninth centuries CE. They played an important role in the history of China’s Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). Uyghur writing was in use for more than a thousand years. The Chinese explains points in the Uyghur text.

Life in ancient Dunhuang is also preserved in the Mogao cave murals, which were commissioned by lay Buddhists. The donors are often depicted in the paintings. Primarily Buddhist in content, the paintings also provide a portrait of life in medieval China. Three Dunhuang cave paintings are included in Documents 4, 5, and 6 of Part A (pp. 263-265):

•

Document 4: Plowing scene illustrating a passage from a Buddhist Sutra.

•

Document 5: After the Buddha enters Nirvana, princes from various Central Asian states come to mourn.

•

Document 6: A painting of Mt. Wutai in Shanxi province, about nine hundred miles east of Dunhuang. Wutai is one of the most sacred Buddhist sites in China.

The International Dunhuang Project website has a special feature on books and bookbinding: http://idp.bl.uk/chapters/topics/bookbinding/CHOOSER-FRAMESET.html

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

257

Most of the paintings date from the end of the ﬁfth to the beginning of the eighth century CE. The murals were painted using a complicated technique that began with a base layer of clay. The mineralbased colors have remained bright for centuries (Bonavia 1988: 167). Rationale: As religious beliefs take root in societies, they give birth to social and economic institutions that affect the daily lives of the faithful. In Dunhuang, Buddhism was central to the daily lives of the people until the advent of Islam.

In this lesson, students will examine everyday life in Dunhuang as it was shaped by relations with the Buddhist community. Students will describe this relationship through primary sources, and determine how and why Buddhism was necessary for Dunhuang to be successful. Time: One to two class periods. Instructional Resources: Dunhuang documents and paintings from the Mogao caves. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: UNIT 4 – P

•

Tell the story of why the caves were built.

•

Divide the class into groups of ﬁve. Instruct students that they are going to be historians and anthropologists. They will look at the documents and cave paintings to determine what life was like in ancient Dunhuang and what role Buddhism played. Each group will get a painting or document and will answer the questions.

•

Make three columns and label them “political,” “social,” and “economic” on the board. Based on student ﬁndings, ﬁll in each column. What was life like in Dunhuang? Why would patrons want these scenes included in their murals?

Whole Group Reflection: Could Dunhuang have existed without Buddhism? Could the Buddhist monasteries have existed without the people of Dunhuang? How do these roles (political/economic/ social) relate to the ideas of Buddhism? Instructional Modification: Since the documents contain sophisticated language, teachers might choose students with better reading comprehension to examine them. Alternatively, the documents can be edited and adapted. Application: As homework, students will write the essay outlined in Part B. Alternatively, they may

258

•

Research relations between Buddhism and the imperial government during different periods in Chinese history.

•

Create a document or drawing that would show today’s society in political, economic, or social terms.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS

PART A This question is based on the accompanying documents. It is designed to test your ability to work with historical documents. Some of these have been edited for the purposes of this question. As you analyze them, take into account both the source of each and any point of view that may be presented. Historical Context: Throughout history, religious beliefs and the social and economic institutions they give birth to have played important roles in many cultures. In Dunhuang, Buddhism deeply inﬂuenced the daily life of the community for over a thousand years. The relationship between the Buddhist clergy and the common people was an important aspect of life in Dunhuang. Task: Using information from the documents below and your knowledge of global history, answer the questions that follow each document in Part A. Your answers to the questions will help you write the Part B essay. UNIT

DOCUMENT 1: A WEALTHY MONK*

4 – P

Chinese farmers often had to borrow in order to survive until harvest time. Buddhist monks in powerful positions could become rich by lending money at high interest rates. Although a monk could lend money, the power to collect debts lay with the government. Here, a wealthy monk visits an official to ask for assistance.

The monk Daoyan was controller of the Buddhist clergy . . . His wealth was immense and yielded a great deal of interest . . . He frequently called upon high officials in the local government to help him collect his debts [money he had lent to the poor farmers of the area]. Each time he came to see one particular high official, the man, knowing what he wanted, fell to talking about difficult points of religious doctrine with the monk. Daoyan, who had come to talk about debts and ﬁgures, could not get a word in edgewise. When his disciples asked him the reason, Daoyan replied, “Whenever I pay the prefect a visit, he leads me directly into the blue clouds—how can I discuss down-to-earth matters? (Adapted from Gernet 1995: 181).

1. What role does Buddhism play here (social/political/economic) and why?

2. Does the idea of a money-lending monk contradict his role as a man of religion? Why or why not?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

259

DOCUMENT 2: MULTICULTURAL DUNHUANG MANUSCRIPTS* Centuries-old written documents were preserved in Dunhuang’s dry climate. The Dunhuang manuscripts are written in more than a dozen languages and scripts, many of them now extinct. • • •

(A) is a book written in both Turkic script and Chinese characters. (B) is a scroll written in Tibetan (C) is a book written in the Uyghur script. A. Turkic and Chinese Writing

The people of modern Turkey are only one of many Turkic peoples. The ﬁrst Turkic empire was established in the sixth century and stretched from Mongolia to Central Asia.

UNIT 4 – P

(Source: TB Stein: 4.0339)

Dated 930, this page from a paper book has writing in both Chinese characters (left half ) and an alphabet used by the early Turks (right half ). The Turkic writing is a fortune-telling manual. People would throw dice or specially shaped bones and then use this book to interpret the results. The text is written from right to left. The Chinese consists of verses on the life of the Buddha. Notice how Chinese characters are written over the Turkic text in the area within the computer-generated rectangle. B. Tibetan Writing

After Chinese, Tibetan is the most widely used language in the Dunhuang manuscripts. This is because the Tibetan empire controlled Dunhuang between 755 and 851. Tibetan writing was invented in the seventh century CE, based on writing used in India. This paper scroll is a Buddhist religious text.

(Source: TB Stein: 4.0365)

260

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

C. Uyghur Writing

The Uyghurs are a Turkic people who established a Central Asian empire in the eighth and ninth centuries. They played an important role in the history of China’s Tang dynasty (618-907). The Uyghur alphabet was abandoned in favor of Arabic when Central Asia became Muslim beginning in the eighth century. It was, however, revived under Mongol rule in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. This was because the Mongols had never had a written language, so they adopted Uyghur writing for use in Mongolian documents.

UNIT 4 – P

(Source: TB Stein: 4.0345)

This book dates from the mid-fourteenth century, the period of Mongol rule. It’s also a Buddhist text. The Chinese writing within the computer-generated rectangles comments on the Uyghur writing. The columns are read from top to bottom and from left to right.

1. Both (A) and (C) have Chinese writing along with writing in another language. How do (A) and (C) differ in the way Chinese is used?

2. Which document, (A) or (C), is more likely to have been written by a single person? Why?

3. Give two examples of places where you’ve seen two or more languages and/or kinds of writing in use. It can be in your town or city, in a book, on the internet, etc. Why is more than one kind of language used? Do any of your examples express cultural exchange. If so, why?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

261

DOCUMENT 3: A CONTRACT FOR THE LOAN OF SOME CLOTH* On the eighteenth day of the eighth month of the year 874, Deng Shanzi, [requiring] a quantity of cloth, went to the monastery dean. Deng borrowed from him a roll of satin measuring ten yards long and thirty inches wide. He further borrowed a roll of ten yards of satin of the same width. The date of reimbursem*nt was ﬁxed as the eleventh month. Should that date be exceeded without reimbursem*nt, interest will be charged on the full amount [due at that time]. Lest there be a breach of faith, this contract was drawn up to serve as proof later: The borrower of the satin, Deng Shanzi (signature); The witness, Guard Administrator Zhang Congjin; The witness, Dean Zongfu (Gernet 1995: 184).

1. What kind of document is this?

UNIT 4 – P

2. What role do the Buddhist clergy play here (social/political/economic) and why?

3. Who plays a similar role in today’s society?

262

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 4: A PAINTING FROM DUNHUANG (CAVE 25)* The Mogao cave murals preserve a portrait of life in ancient Dunhuang. These paintings were commissioned by Buddhists in the community, well-to-do people who donated the money to have these murals done. These donors are often depicted in the paintings. Primarily Buddhist in content, the paintings also provide a portrait of life in medieval China. They date from the end of the ﬁfth to the beginning of the eighth century CE. Look at this painting from the Mogao Caves and answer the questions that follow.

UNIT 4 – P

(Source: People’s Daily Online) http://english.people.com.cn/features/dunhuang/pages/cave25-5.htm

1. What are the people doing?

2. Does everyone in the painting seem to be of the same ethnic background?

3. What can it tell us about life in that time period?

4. How are people interacting with the geography?

5. Why do you suppose this subject was included in the paintings? (Hint: Reread Document 1.)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

263

DOCUMENT 5: A PAINTING FROM DUNHUANG (CAVE 158)* Look at this painting from the Mogao Caves and answer the questions that follow. The scene occurs immediately after the death of the Buddha.

UNIT 4 – P

(Source: Footprints Tours, LTD) http://www.greenkiwi.co.nz/footprints/

1. What are the people doing? (Hint: Look at the expressions on their faces.)

2. Who are the people: Do they all belong to the same ethnic group?

3. What can it tell us about ancient life?

4. What would a tourist traveling to Dunhuang today conclude about Buddhism from this mural?

264

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 6: A PAINTING FROM DUNHUANG (CAVE 61)* Look at this painting from the Mogao Caves and answer the questions that follow.

UNIT 4 – P (Source: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and Dunhuang Academy)

1. List the animals and describe what they are doing.

2. List the actions of the people.

3. Describe the scenery in all parts of the painting.

4. What is this scene depicting?

5. What would a tourist traveling to Dunhuang today conclude about life in Dunhuang from this mural?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

265

DOCUMENT 7: A GREAT BUDDHIST FESTIVAL IN DUNHUANG* This is a description of a festival organized by the lay Buddhist associations in Dunhuang city.

The streets and alleys are swept and watered. The banners of the Buddhist associations are suspended in formation. The city gates are decorated. The Buddhas are placed on their precious thrones. Monks of renown are invited. Rich incense burners of a hundred fragrances are set out. In the preparation of such acts of piety, one’s ﬁrst concern should indeed be the ornamentation. From the administrator and secretary of our association down to the remainder of our honorable member, we all form the intention that our sins and the numerous obstacles [to enlightenment] be obliterated this very day and that immeasurable blessing gather at this moment. May the riches of the [Buddhist] Law accumulate and the lives of the good be prolonged. May disasters and misfortunes be prevented from crossing the thresholds of our gates and trouble from entering our neighborhoods and alleyways. Happiness and joy in each family! Contentment in each dwelling! (Adapted from Gernet 1995: 269)

1. What is the purpose of this Buddhist feast? UNIT 4 – P

266

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

PART B ESSAY Directions: Write a well-organized essay that includes an introduction, several paragraphs, and a conclusion. Use evidence from at least two documents to support your response. Include additional related information. Historical Context: Throughout history, religious beliefs and the social and economic institutions they give birth to have played important roles in many cultures. In Dunhuang, Buddhism deeply inﬂuenced the daily life of the community for over a thousand years. The relationship between the Buddhist clergy and the common people was an important aspect of life in Dunhuang. Task: Using information from the documents and your knowledge of global history, write an essay in which you

• •

Explain how Dunhuang’s location inﬂuenced its development as a center of Buddhism. Evaluate the role of Buddhism in Dunhuang. UNIT 4 – P

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

267

Unit Q

XUANZANG’S PILGRIMAGE TO INDIA

Essential Question: What did Xuanzang’s pilgrimage accomplish and what were the obstacles to completing his journey? Learning Experience: Students will travel with the pilgrim-monk Xuanzang (c. 596-664) and share some of the hardships of his journey. They will learn about religious pilgrimage from a Buddhist point of view. Anticipatory Set: People can travel for fun or for a purpose (for example, business, or to visit family). Religion was, and still is, an important reason to travel. In pre-modern times, the religious pilgrimage from China to India was long and dangerous. This lesson discusses the Tang dynasty (618907) monk Xuanzang and his pilgrimage to India. Context: Perhaps the Silk Roads’ most important historical role was as a conduit for the entry of Buddhism into China. First mentioned in mid-ﬁrst century Chinese sources, Buddhism gradually became part of Chinese society in the centuries after the fall of the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE). During this so-called Period of Disunion (220-589 CE), non-Chinese peoples ruled North China, and refugees who had ﬂed the north in the early fourth century governed south China. Mahayana Buddhism’s promise of release from worldly suffering offered hope and refuge to those living in these violent and uncertain times.

UNIT

During this period, Buddhist pilgrims from China also braved the deserts and mountains of Central Asia to make the long trip to India:

4 – Q

As in other religions with identiﬁable founders, later followers of the Sakyamuni Buddha (sixth to ﬁfth century BCE) wanted to travel to the sites in India commemorated by his life, speciﬁcally his birth, enlightenment, ﬁrst sermon, and death (Naquin and Yu 1992: 5). When China was again united under the Sui (589-618 CE) and Tang (618-907 CE) dynasties, the number of Buddhist pilgrims greatly increased. Xuanzang is the most famous of all Buddhist pilgrims. He entered a monastery at the age of twelve, following in the footsteps of his older brother. He was a charismatic ﬁgure deeply immersed in Buddhist thought and practice. His unshakeable determination to go to India would, even in his lifetime, make his story the stuff of legend. Before he set out, an old traveler gave Xuanzang this advice: “The road to the West is dangerous and one has to cross the desert where there are demons and hot wind. Whoever encounters them cannot be spared from death. Even if you travel together with a large number of companions, you might go astray or be lost. How can you, reverend teacher, try to go all alone?” But the Master replied: “I started on my journey to the West for the purpose of seeking the great Law. I will not return to the East before I reach India. Even if I die on the way, I won’t regret it” (Adapted from Life 1959: 17).

268

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Xuanzang’s pilgrimage took him west through the Gansu corridor along a northern Silk Roads route. During the Tang dynasty, the oasis kingdoms of this region were frequently pawns in the rivalry between Chinese, Tibetans, and Turks.1 He then went beyond what is today China’s westernmost border into Central Asia, visiting the cities of Samarkand and Tashkent in modern Uzbekistan. He ﬁnally reached India by going south through parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan (Maps D and Map I). Once in India, Xuanzang visited sacred sites connected to the past lives and the historical life of the Buddha. He debated with learned monks and devoted himself to study. In all, his pilgrimage took sixteen years (629-645). After his return to China, Xuanzang dedicated himself to making translations of the texts he had collected. The earliest Buddhist scripture in Chinese is believed to date from the late ﬁrst or early second century. By Xuanzang’s time, although many texts had been translated, it was still felt that signiﬁcant gaps existed in Chinese understanding of Buddhist doctrine. Since Xuanzang knew both Sanskrit and Chinese, his translations set new standards of precision and readability. Moreover, he brought the insights of a profound Buddhist thinker to this project (Ch’en 1964: 368-369). In addition, Xuanzang’s detailed travel record provided a wealth of accurate information about Central Asia and India. Xuanzang eventually became a folk hero. In the sixteenth century, many of the legends that had accumulated about him went into the making of China’s most popular novel, Journey to the West. Rationale: Buddhism is the ﬁrst world religion, a universal system of beliefs that spread from India to Sri Lanka, Central Asia, China, Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia. In learning about Xuanzang’s pilgrimage, students will gain understanding of the difficult journey that brought Buddhism to East Asia over the Silk Roads. Time: One or two class sessions. Instructional Resources: Map of Xuanzang’s journey—download a copy of a map created by the S.P.I.C.E Project at Stanford University:

UNIT 4 – Q

http://www.askasia.org/teachers/Instructional_Resources/Lesson_Plans/Central_Asia/LP_central_2a.htm

“Student Handout: Xuanzang’s Itinerary” (p. 277); thirteen documents. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: The class should be divided into groups, with every student getting a copy of the Map of Xuanzang’s journey, “Student Handout: Xuanzang’s Itinerary,” and Document 1. The remaining documents are divided two to a group. If this isn’t numerically possible, some students can work alone. Whole Class Discussion: Using the Map of Xuanzang’s journey, “Student Handout: Xuanzang’s Itinerary,” along with a large map of Asia, the whole class will try to get a general picture of the places Xuanzang traveled through to reach India.

The groups then read Document 1 plus their assigned documents. They take notes on the following points: • • • 1

Reasons for Xuanzang’s journey; Geography: mention of places or regions; References to Buddhism or the Buddha;

The people of modern Turkey are only one of many Turkic peoples. The first known Turkic state was founded in the sixth century and stretched from Mongolia to Central Asia.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

269

• • •

Obstacles to travel: Geographical, human, supernatural; Religious sites visited; Role of dreams and miracles in Xuanzang’s story.

On an 8 1/2 x 11 sheet of paper, each group creates an illustration depicting one key aspect of its reading selections’ content. Whole Group Reflection: After each group reports its results and explain their illustrations to the rest of the class, students should review the reasons why Xuanzang went to India. Also, ask students to create a title for this Xuanzang project. For example: “Xuanzang, a Buddhist Pilgrim,” “Xuanzang, a Chinese Explorer.” See who can be the most creative. Instructional Modification: Less advanced students (or more visual learners) should be assigned to the cartography group. Application: Students can write an essay creating their own pilgrimage story. This needn’t be religious in content: a pilgrimage can be any journey that causes a person to change in some way. Nor does it have to be a long-distance journey or, for that matter, involve actual travel at all. A View of The Big Goose Pagoda in Xi’an, Built to Store The Buddhist Texts Xuanzang Brought Back from India. The Statue of Xuanzang Is a Modern One

UNIT 4 – Q

(Source: Photograph by Marleen Kassel, 2001, Xi’an)

270

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 1: WHY PILGRIMAGE? Pilgrimages are common to all the major world religions. In Judaism, Christianity, and Islam ... pilgrimage is a journey to a holy city. In Judaism, pilgrimage was a central ritual act deﬁning a person as a Jew. The Old Testament speciﬁed that every male was required to go to the Temple in Jerusalem three times a year . . . In Islam, pilgrimage was (and remains) obligatory for both men and women. The Qur’an stipulated a journey to the holy city of Mecca at least once in one’s lifetime . . . Although never obligatory, pilgrimages have likewise been made by Christians since the formative period of their religion. Journeys to Jerusalem began as early as the fourth century. As in other religions with identiﬁable founders, later followers of the Sakyamuni Buddha (sixth to ﬁfth century BCE) wanted to travel to the sites in India commemorated by his life, speciﬁcally his birth, enlightenment, ﬁrst sermon, and death (Naquin 1992: 1, 5).

DOCUMENT 2: SETTING OUT FOR THE WESTERN REGIONS* Xuanzang had to leave secretly because the government didn’t want people traveling beyond China to the “Western Regions”—Central Asia and India. Someone introduced him to an “old foreigner” experienced in traveling through these areas. The man offered him some advice.

The old man said: “The road to the West is dangerous and one has to cross the desert where there are demons and hot wind. Whoever encounters them cannot be spared from death. Even if you travel together with a large number of companions, you might get lost. How can you, reverend teacher, try to go all alone?”

UNIT 4 – Q

But the Master replied: “I started on my journey to the West for the purpose of seeking the great Law. I will not return to the East before I reach India. Even if I die on the way, I won’t regret it.” The old man said: “If you insist on going, you had better change your horse for mine. My horse has traveled this country ﬁfteen times. Yours is too young to travel so long a distance.” Before he had left the capital, Xuanzang had asked a fortuneteller to predict what would happen on the journey. He told him that “You shall be able to go and it seems that you will be riding on an old, skinny horse of a reddish color. Now this old man’s horse was skinny and reddish in color . . . the Master thought it was a good idea to make the change. The old man was quite pleased (Adapted from Life 1959: 17).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

271

DOCUMENT 3: THE GOBI DESERT* Early in his journey, Xuanzang’s guide left, afraid of the government’s travel ban. Alone, the monk journeyed west along the northern Silk Roads, crossing part of the Gobi desert. He accidentally lost his supply of water and he and his horse almost died of thirst.

He looked all around him, but there was no living creature to be seen. In the night, spirits hovered around him. They sparkled as brightly as stars in the sky. During the day, surprise dust storms blew sand that fell on him like a rain shower, but he had no fear. His only trouble was that he had no water. At last he could go no further—for four nights and ﬁve days he hadn’t had a single drop of water. His mouth and stomach were all dried up. Almost dead, he was unable to move. He lay down on the sand and repeated the name of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva [the Bodhisattva of Compassion], saying: “My journey isn’t for gaining wealth or personal reputation, but simply for the purpose of obtaining the Buddhist Law . . . I am now in great distress. Can you hear my prayers?” At midnight of the ﬁfth day came a cool breeze. It made him feel as if he were taking a cold bath. He was able to open his eyes. His horse got to its feet. He then dozed off and dreamt of a giant spirit holding a spear. The spirit said: “Why are you sleeping here instead of going forward?” Xuanzang woke up and started his journey. Suddenly his horse moved off in another direction. Xuanzang pulled at the reins but the animal wouldn’t respond. After awhile, they came to a patch of green pasture. Ten paces beyond that was a pond of fresh water (Adapted from Life 1959: 24-25).

DOCUMENT 4: THE TURFAN OASIS*

UNIT

After Xuanzang’s month-long stay at the Turfan oasis, the king equipped him in truly grand style for his pilgrimage.

4 – Q

He had various articles of clothing made suitable for such a climate, such as face-coverings, gloves, leather boots and so on. Moreover he gave him a hundred gold ounces, and thousands of silver pieces, with ﬁve hundred rolls of satin and taffeta, enough for the outward and home journey of the Master during twenty years. He gave him also thirty horses and twenty-four servants (Beal 1969: 30). The gold, silver, satin, and silk cloth would be for the kings and khans whom he would visit on his journey. Most important of all, the king gave him twenty-four royal letters to be presented to the twenty-four different kingdoms (Adapted from Wriggins 1996: 24-25).

DOCUMENT 5: THE TIANSHAN RANGE* The Tianshan mountain range is one of the most important in Central Asia. It extends for almost 1500 miles across Kyrgyzstan and Xinjiang province in China. Xuanzang crossed the Tianshan on his way to India. Upon going around one of its highest peaks, Khan Tengri (“Lord of the Sky,” 23,620 ft.), he had the following to say.

This mountain is steep and dangerous, and reaches up to the clouds. From the beginning of time the perpetual snow has collected here in piles, and has been changed into glaciers which melt neither in winter nor summer . . . looking at them the eye is blinded with glare, so that it cannot long gaze at them (Wriggins 1996: 29-30).

272

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 6: XUANZANG MEETS THE GREAT KHAN Xuanzang met the Great Khan of the West Turks at Tokmak, today in Kyrgyzstan. The Khan gave Xuanzang a warm welcome and the pilgrim handed over a letter and gifts from the king of Turfan. Their party was treated to a feast in the Khan’s yurt, a large pavilion.

Large pieces of mutton and boiled veal were piled high in front of the guests. Everyone but Xuanzang drank a lot of wine, and all enjoyed the clashing chords of their [the Turk’s] music. Special rice cakes, cream, mares’ milk, crystallized sugar, honey, and raisins were provided for the pilgrim, whose religious beliefs did not allow him to eat meat. At the end . . . the Khan asked him to “improve the occasion” by lecturing on the Buddhist doctrine . . . The pilgrim spoke on the need for love of all living creatures and the religious life that led to ﬁnal deliverance. Apparently the Khan was impressed (Adapted from Wriggins 1996: 31).

DOCUMENT 7: XUANZANG SEES THE BUDDHAS AT BAMIYAN* The Colossal Statue of the Buddha at Bamiyan (175 ft. high), Central Afghanistan. Destroyed by the Taliban in March 2001

UNIT 4 – Q

(Source: Conway Library, Courtauld Institute of Art) http://www.courtauld.ac.uk/sub_index/photographic/conway/bamiyan_buddahs/bamiyan-subs/bamiyan_detail_01.html

The colossal Buddha played an important role in the diffusion of the Buddha image throughout East Asia. Its huge size impressed travelers. Some probably took home small “souvenir” replicas of the statue. Because of this, its appearance and style influenced Buddhist sculpture in China and Japan.

To the northeast of the royal city there is a mountain, on the side of which is placed the stone ﬁgure of Buddha standing, in height one hundred or one hundred and ﬁfty feet. Its golden colors sparkle on every side and its precious ornaments dazzle the eyes with their brightness. To the east of this spot there is a convent, which was built by the former king of this country. To the east of the convent there is a standing ﬁgure of the Buddha made of metal, in one hundred feet. It has been cast in different parts, joined together, and placed in completed form as it stands (Wriggins 1996: 44). PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

273

DOCUMENT 8: GUEST AT A MONASTERY* After passing through mountainous territory in what is today northeastern Pakistan and Kashmir, Xuanzang stayed at a local monastery.

The king sent his uncle to welcome him with carriages and horses. He passed by many monasteries and worshipped the images of the Buddha. Finally he reached a monastery where he spent the night. That night the monks all dreamed of seeing a god who spoke to them, saying: “This guest monk has come from the great country of China. He desires to study the scriptures in India, to visit the holy places, and to learn what he did not know before . . . You should recite the scriptures with diligence in order to win his praise. Why are you sleeping?” (Adapted from Life 1959: 69).

DOCUMENT 9: A BANDIT ATTACK* In India, bandits attacked Xuanzang and his fellow travelers. The bandits intended to kill everyone. Xuanzang and a companion escaped and ran for help to a nearby village. The villagers chased away the bandit gang.

The Master came back . . . and released the others from the ropes that the bandits had tied them up with. He went together with them to the village to spend the night. Everybody cried sorrowfully, but the Master alone smiled happily. His companions asked him, saying: “Our clothes and money have all been stolen. We have only our lives left . . . How is it that you do not share our feeling of misery, but smile with an easy mind?”

UNIT 4 – Q

274

The Master replied: “Life is the most precious thing there is. Since we have our lives, why should we worry? . . . There is no need to grieve over the unimportant loss of clothes and money!” (Adapted from Life 1959: 74-75).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 10: VISITING STUPAS IN INDIA* The Great Stupa at Sanchi, in Central India. Built in the Mid-third Century BCE, It Was Rediscovered in 1818

(Source: Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc.) http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/buddhist-art/sanchi01.htm

Stupas are shrines housing relics associated with the Buddha or other sacred ﬁgures. They have a circular base supporting a large dome. This is surrounded by a railing and four gateways decorated with scenes from the life of the Buddha or from mythology. The dome is topped off with an umbrella. Why are stupas shaped this way? The parts represent different aspects of Buddhist teaching, and also symbolize the whole universe in the form of the Four Elements. In Indian thought and religion, there are Four Elements, basic substances that make up everything in the world. Thus, stupas symbolize the universe. Symbolism of the Stupa The square base =

EARTH

UNIT 4 – Q

The dome =

WATER

The stone fence =

FIRE

The pole of the umbrella =

AIR

Pilgrims worshipped a stupa by walking around it a prescribed number of times. This is called “circumambulation.” Xuanzang visited many stupas in India, including this miraculous one:

This stupa often shone with a bright light. Beside it was a dragon’s pool,2 and the dragon often transformed itself into a man and circled around the stupa. Wild elephants always came with ﬂowers to offer to the stupa. Near it was a monastery. Once a group of monks came from far away to worship the stupa. They saw that the elephants brought ﬂowers to put in front of the stupa. They also cleared the weeds with their tusks and sprinkled water on the ground with their trunks. The head monk said: “The elephants are animals and yet they know to pay homage to the stupa by offering ﬂowers to it and keeping it clean” (Adapted from Life 1959: 93-94). 2

What Xuanzang’s biographer describes as “dragons” are nagas (“Sanskrit for “snake”). In Hindu and Buddhist mythology, nagas are halfhuman/half-serpent. They live in water and sometimes can be found guarding treasure.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

275

DOCUMENT 11: THE RETURN TO CHINA In 645 Xuanzang returned to the capital at Chang’an where he was given a huge government-arranged reception.

A body of high officials clears the way to bring Xuanzang to the capital. They arrange for a huge group of monks to parade his books, relics, gold, silver, and sandalwood images through Chang’an. The procession the next day begins at the Street of the Red Bird and ends at the main gate of the Monastery of Great Happiness. All the monasteries send monks and nuns in their ceremonial robes for the occasion. The people compete with one another in preparing their best banners, tapestries, umbrellas, precious tables, and carriages. When they reach the Street of the Red Bird, they march forward with the sound of pearls and jade hanging from their belts tinkling in the air, amidst golden ﬂowers scattered on the road (Adapted from Life 1959: 209).

DOCUMENT 12: INTERVIEW WITH THE EMPEROR* Xuanzang left China without government permission. The emperor brought up the subject when the monk arrived at court on his return.

Having sat down, the emperor asked: “Why did you go to India without telling me?” The Master replied: “When I was preparing for my journey, I had sent petitions to Your Majesty several times, but as my project was unworthy, I did not enjoy the favor of being granted with an official permission . . . I went away privately for which offense I beg the pardon of Your Majesty.”

UNIT 4 – Q

The emperor said: “Since you are a monk, you are different from lay people in this matter. I am delighted that you went to seek for the [Buddhist] Law at the risk of your life for the beneﬁt of all the people. There is no need to ask my pardon.” (Adapted from Life 1959: 210)

DOCUMENT 13: THE TRANSLATOR OF BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES After returning to China in 645, Xuanzang devoted the rest of his life to translating the writings he brought back from India into Chinese.

In 660 CE, Xuanzang began the translation of an extremely long Buddhist sutra.3 His disciples suggested that he should make an abridgement of it. Xuanzang agreed. That night he dreamt he was climbing up a high peak with some wild animal at his back trying to catch him. He trembled and was soaked with perspiration, but eventually managed to escape. After waking up, he decided to translate the entire sutra. That night he dreamt he saw the Buddha. A light shined from the middle of his eyebrows. It shined over Xuanzang’s body and made him feel comfortable and happy. He awoke and felt contented. Xuanzang never again thought of making an abridged translation (Adapted from Life 1959: 260-261).

276

“Sutras” are sacred texts believed to contain the words of the Buddha.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Student Handout: Xuanzang’s Itinerary

Listed below are the modern countries that exist today in the regions Xuanzang traveled through before reaching India. CHINA Shaanxi province (also spelled Shensi) Gansu province (Kansu) Xinjiang province (Sinkiang)

KYRGYZSTAN

UZBEKISTAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

UNIT 4 – Q

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

277

Unit R

MAGICAL PILGRIMS ON THE SILK ROADS: THE ADVENTURE IN THE CART-SLOW KINGDOM FROM JOURNEY TO THE WEST

Essential Questions: How do Monkey and his companions overcome the Three Immortals? Does Journey to the West’s mixture of deep religious belief with magic and (often crude) comedy go against your idea of the word “religious”? Learning Experience: In reading part of Journey to the West, students will encounter some of the most famous and beloved characters in traditional Chinese ﬁction. Behind the pilgrims’ riotous world, they will get a sense of Ming dynasty (1368-1644) culture, a period when thinkers and writers attempted to balance society’s conformist demands with the individual’s need for personal autonomy. Anticipatory Set: Can you see this chapter from a Chinese novel as a television sitcom that takes a serious issue or idea and makes it funny? Context: Since it was ﬁrst published in the sixteenth century, Journey to the West has been one of the best-loved works of Chinese ﬁction. It also became widely popular in the rest of East Asia—Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Arthur Waley’s Monkey (1943), a translation of about a third of the book, has made the adventures of Monkey, Tripitaka, Pigsy, and Sandy into an English language classic. Today, Journey to the West lives on in cartoons, comics, actions ﬁgures, and on the Internet.

The novel is loosely based on the travels of the Tang dynasty monk Xuanzang (596-664). In 627 Xuanzang set out for India to study the Buddhist law, visit sacred sites, and acquire Buddhist texts. He returned to China sixteen years later and spent the rest of his life translating the books he had brought back. Although Xuanzang (or Tripitaka,1 his honorary name) was not the only Chinese monk-pilgrim who went to India, he is the most famous. His story gradually became legend. In nearly a millennium of evolution, the story of Tang Sanzang [“Tripitaka of the Tang dynasty”] . . . and his acquisition of scriptures in the West has been told by both pen and mouth and through a variety of literary forms which have included the short poetic tale, the drama, and ﬁnally the fully developed narrative using both prose and verse. In this long process of development, the theme of the pilgrimage for scriptures is never muted, but added to this basic constituent of the story are numerous features which have more in common with folktales and popular legends than with history. The account of a courageous monk’s undertaking, motivated by profound religious zeal and commitment, is thus eventually transformed into a tale of supernatural deeds and fantastic adventures, of mythic beings and animal spirits, of fearsome battles with monsters and miraculous deliverance from dreadful calamities (Yu 1977: 5-6).

UNIT 4 – R

Journey to the West tells its colorful story in the course of a hundred chapters:

278

Tripitaka is Sanskrit for “Three Baskets,” which refers to the three-part division of the Buddhist canon. In Chinese, Tripitaka is Sanzang or “Three Storehouses.”

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Ch. 1-7

The birth of Sun Wukong [Monkey], his acquisition of immortality and magic powers . . . his invasion and disturbance of Heaven, and his final subjugation by Buddha.

The Heavenly Council in which Buddha declares his intention to impart the Buddhist canon to the Chinese, the journey of Guanyin [Goddess of Mercy] to the land of the East to find the appropriate scripture pilgrim, and her preparatory encounters with all of Xuanzang’s future disciples [Monkey, Pigsy, Sandy].

9-12

The background and birth of Xuanzang, his vengeance on his father’s murderers.

13-97

The journey itself, developed primarily through a long series of captures and releases of the pilgrims by monsters, demons, animal spirits, and gods in disguise.

98-100

The successful completion of the journey, the audience with Buddha, the return with scriptures to Chang’an, and the final canonization of the five pilgrims in the West. (Adapted from Yu 1977: 15)

Authorship of Journey to the West is attributed to a minor scholar-official named Wu Cheng’en (c. 1506-1582). The publication of this and other major novels during the Ming dynasty (1369-1644) reﬂects the growth of a small reading public2 and the availability of relatively inexpensive printed books. Combining a wide variety of preexisting materials into long works of ﬁction satisﬁed the tastes of this cultivated audience (Bryant 2001: 399). Although for modern readers Journey to the West is primarily a work of adventure and comic fantasy, it nevertheless reﬂects important aspects of the pre-modern Chinese worldview. It presents a universe peopled by gods, ghosts, and monsters, a world where the supernatural and the everyday are inseparable, where magic works wonders, where dreams foretell the future, and where all life is subject to the Buddhist law of karma and rebirth. In addition, the novel’s physical journey is an allegory of the mind’s journey from worldly attachments to the realm of freedom from desire. The demons that populate the book symbolize the excesses of the mind and the senses. The author makes this clear in chapters where the pilgrims subdue the “bandits of the four senses” or a temptress is referred to as the “seven passions” (Plaks 1994: 279). Although Tripitaka is a Buddhist priest, these spiritual concerns echo the “union of the three teachings” (Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism) characteristic of the Ming period (1369-1644). This union “brought together the Confucian cultivation of moral perfection, the Buddhist cultivation of transcendent enlightenment, and the Daoist cultivation of physical immortality” (Plaks 1994: 279).

UNIT 4 – R

Journey to the West combines piety with slapstick, Buddhist compassion with martial arts-style combat, and the world of the supernatural with the world of the everyday. That violence and often coarse humor frame its religious message is a message in itself: The “Way” (Dao) is all-embracing. Since, in the words of an ancient saying, “Heaven covers everything and Earth carries everything,” there is nothing, no matter how humble or ﬁlthy, that is outside the Way.

Small, that is, when compared to China’s total population, which in 1600 was about 160 million.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

279

Tripitaka and His Companions

The Buddhist Goddess of Mercy, Guanyin, visits China at the Buddha’s request to ﬁnd a “scripture pilgrim,” someone who will travel to India and bring knowledge of the true Buddhist law back to China. On her way, she meets each of the creatures that will become Tripitaka’s guardians on the journey west. All of them—Pigsy, Sandy, and Monkey—are being punished for having committed crimes against the Jade Emperor in Heaven.3 She hears their stories and tells them to await Tripitaka’s coming. By accompanying him to India, they will gain their freedom. Sandy, having broken a crystal dish at a banquet in the Jade Emperor’s court, is condemned to become a water monster. He eats any human that comes near his home, the River of Floating Sands. Pigsy was beaten and sent back to earth for getting drunk and “misbehaving” with the Goddess of the Moon. After he died, he was reborn as a pig monster and spends his time eating people. An ugly, foul smelling creature, he uses a dung-rake to attack Guanyin. Monkey (called Sun Wukong—”Monkey Aware of Emptiness,”4 and the “Great Sage Equal to Heaven”) has committed many crimes: eating the peaches in the Jade Emperor’s garden, and erasing his name from the register of karma and rebirth to make himself immortal, to name just two. He neither can be killed nor defeated in battle. The Buddha eventually imprisons him under a mountain. Monkey is the main character in Journey to the West. His spontaneous nature and his awesome magical skills dominate the novel.

After the Monkey King began to challenge heaven, the supreme Jade Emperor gave him the task of managing the heavenly stables under the title “‘Bimawen,” which initially pleased him. Later, he asked about the “rank” of his Bimawen appointment, but was told it had no rank. The Monkey King asked, “Is that because it is too high?” but was told, “On the contrary, it’s too low!” Monkey then created havoc, demanding a higher position, and then was reappointed to manage the heavenly peach orchard, where he stole the legendary peaches of immortality. UNIT 4 – R

(Source: Early twentieth century traditional print, courtesy of James Flath.)

3 4

280

http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/history/nianhua/

Just as earthly China had its emperor and bureaucracy, so did Heaven. “Emptiness” is the ultimate reality in Mahayana Buddhism. It means that everything is devoid of self-nature and thus transcends duality. Seen in this light, nirvana is not different from samsara. Enlightenment is the realization of this truth.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Pigsy, Sandy, and Monkey are all supernatural beings who have achieved immortality. Tripitaka is the only mortal human being among the pilgrims: Joyless and humorless . . . Tripitaka is dull of mind and peevish in spirit . . . he is singularly attached to bodily comforts, complaining more than once about the cold and hunger inﬂicted by the journey. The slightest foreboding of ill or danger terriﬁes him . . . . . . Tripitaka’s frail and fallible character is deliberately magniﬁed by the author in order to stress his absolute need for his supernatural companions . . . (Yu 1977: 44). Excerpts from Chapters 44-46 of Journey to the West: “The Cart-Slow Kingdom”

This unit uses excerpts from the pilgrims’ adventures in the Cart-Slow Kingdom. Because the Buddhists once lost a rainmaking contest to the Daoists, they have become their slaves. Monkey and the others free them after a series of trials, including the dramatic rainmaking competition described here. This episode gives the reader a glimpse, albeit a prejudiced Buddhist glimpse, into the world of Daoist religion. Daoist religion, China’s indigenous faith, became widespread at the same time Buddhism was establishing itself in China. This took place during the Period of Disunion (c. 200-600), a violent time when various non-Chinese peoples ruled north China and there was no strong, centralized imperial state. Daoism is a . . . nearly two thousand-year-old tradition of ordained priesthood; the accumulation of an enormous “Bible” of esoteric texts comprehensible only to those with special competence; a grand liturgical tradition based on the ritual texts; a well-deﬁned eremitic5 tradition; and many distinctive techniques conducive to the ultimate goal of transformation to transcendent immortality (Thompson 1996: 81). The author makes the Daoist priests—the “Three Immortals”—the villains. He paints them as pretentious, power-hungry, and more than willing to use their power to oppress the unfortunate Buddhists. In real life, the rainmaking that ends this selection from Journey to the West was, of course, serious business. One of the main functions of the Daoist clergy was “performance of rituals on behalf of clients and the community” (Thompson 1996: 99). Here, both sides show their magical ability to summon the gods that control clouds, wind, and rain. The outcome demonstrates Monkey’s superior powers. Although Buddhist-Daoist rivalry was a fact and, over the centuries, religious persecution existed in China, the enslavement of the Buddhists is a satirical device springing from the author’s imagination.

UNIT 4 – R

There are two complete English translations of Journey to the West: William Jenner, The Journey to the West. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1983. Anthony C. Yu, The Journey to the West, 4 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977-1983. Anthony Yu’s multi-volume translation contains extensive commentary and notes.

Eremitic: Having to do with hermits or religious recluses.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

281

Rationale: In reading this adventure, students will be exposed to all the elements in Journey to the West that have captivated readers since the sixteenth century: Monkeys martial arts and magical skills, the human frailties of the pilgrims, and the vivid theatricality of their encounters with human and supernatural beings. Time: Two forty-minute sessions. Instructional Resources: Abridged and adapted text of chapters 44-46 of Monkey, Arthur Waley’s translation of Journey to the West; three graphic organizers. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: The class should be divided into groups. Each group receives one of the graphic organizers:

• • •

Story Map Story Structure Character Map

Members of the group receiving the character map also need to be assigned individual characters. After completing the tasks based on the organizers, a spokesperson for each group reports to the whole class. The class will then attempt to answer the essential questions: How do Monkey and his companions overcome the Three Immortals? Does Journey to the West’s mixture of deep religious belief with magic and (often crude) comedy go against your idea of the word “religious”? Whole Group Reflection: What other tales featuring animals acting like human beings can you compare with this episode from Journey to the West ? Instructional Modification: Retell a section of the story visually, in the form of a cartoon or story board. Application: Bring Monkey and his fellow pilgrims into the twenty-ﬁrst century by creating a contemporary problem for them to overcome. The Pilgrims in the Cart-Slow Kingdom (Ch. 44-46 of Journey to the West)* UNIT 4 – R

1. The Master and his three disciples traveled westward, going slowly the better to enjoy the scenery, when suddenly they heard what sounded like the hubbub of a hundred thousand voices. Tripitaka, much alarmed, reined in his horse and, turning to Monkey said, “Where does that strange noise come from?” “It sounds to me like a landslide,” broke in Pigsy. “I should say it was a thunderstorm,” said Sandy. “I’m certain it is men shouting and horses neighing,” said Tripitaka. “You’re all wrong,” laughed Monkey. “Wait while I go and look.” Dear Monkey! He gave himself a shake, sprang straight up into the clouds and looked down. Below him he saw a moated city . . . Monkey thought to himself, “Where can all that noise come from? I see no banners or halberds, no artillery. Yet certainly there is a din of horses and men.” Monkey sees a crowd of Buddhist monks dragging a cart loaded with bricks and other construction materials. They are pushing it on a path going up an almost perpendicular cliff. Two Daoist priests come out of the city. When the monks see them, they start working harder, as if out of fear. Monkey changes himself into a Daoist priest and questions the two. They tell him that in this, the Cart-Slow kingdom, everyone from the king on down honors the Daoists. They explain:

282

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

2. “Twenty years ago there was a famine here. The whole court and all the people puriﬁed themselves and prayed fervently for rain. Their prayers were not answered; but just when all seemed lost, three Immortals suddenly came from the sky and saved us. Today they are our masters, and we are their disciples.” “What are their names?” asked Monkey. “Their leader,” said the Daoists, “is called the Tiger Strength Immortal, and the two others are called Deer Strength Immortal and Ram Strength Immortal.” “And what powers of magic have they?” asked Monkey. “They can summon the wind or bring rain,” said the Daoists, “by a mere turn of the hand. They can point at water, and it becomes oil; prick stones and it becomes gold, as easily as one turns in bed. Small wonder that the king and his ministers fell down before them and are eager to count us Daoists as their kin.” “Your king is a lucky man,” said Monkey. “And if your masters have such arts there must be few who would be sorry to claim kinship with them. Indeed, if it isn’t making too bold, I should take it as a great kindness if I might be allowed to meet them for a moment myself.” The two Daoists agree to introduce Monkey. But first:

3. “You must wait a few minutes,” they said. “We have some business to attend to.” “I don’t quite understand,” said Monkey. “Those who have left the world are bound by no ties. How can you speak of having business to conduct?” “Those people over there,” they said, pointing to the priests by the cliff, “are working for us. We have to go and check them off by the list, in case some should be playing truant.” “You must be mistaken,” said Monkey. “Those are Buddhists, they are priests just as we are. What rights have you to set them to work or check them off on a list?” The Daoists explain that once there was a great drought and both Buddhists and Daoists prayed for rain. The Buddhists had no success. But, when the three Daoist Immortals appeared on the scene to pray, rain fell. The Immortals demanded that the Buddhists be made their slaves:

4. . . . It is they who light our ﬁres, they who sweep our ﬂoors, they who are the porters at our gate. At the back of our temple there is a building which is not yet ﬁnished; so we set them to bring tiles and bricks and logs up the cliff. It was feared they might be shirking their work or not pulling hard enough at the cart. So we two were sent to see what was happening.” “This is all most unfortunate,” said Monkey, bursting into tears. “It is quite impossible for me to meet your Masters.” “How is that?” they asked. “I must tell you,” said Monkey, “that the purpose of my wanderings is in part to discover a lost relation.” “What relation?” they asked. “I have an uncle,” said Monkey, “who when he was young became a Buddhist priest. During the famine he went to distant parts to beg alms and has not been seen since. It is very possible that he is detained here and cannot get home. I cannot go with you to the city till I have found out whether he is here.” “That can easily be done,” they said. “We’ll sit here, and you can go to the cliff and do our business for us. There are ﬁve hundred names on the list. You have only to check over the list and see that they are all there. If you ﬁnd your uncle among them, in consideration of the fact that you are a Daoist yourself we should gladly release him.”

UNIT 4 – R

The Buddhists fear Monkey until he says he’s looking for a lost relative. They crowd around and tell him about their hard life. The Cart Slow kingdom is full of police and people are rewarded if they turn in a runaway Buddhist. They are fed the cheapest food. They find relief only in sleep:

5. “. . . the moment we close our eyes, spirits come to keep watch over us . . . They tell us in our dreams,” the Buddhists said, “that we must hold out a little longer, despite our torments. For soon, they said, a pilgrim will come, who is on his way to India to get scriptures. With him is a disciple named the Great Sage Equal of Heaven [Monkey], who has great magic powers, which he uses to right the wrongs of the oppressed. He will destroy the Daoists and bring the followers of Buddhism once more into respect.” Monkey said to himself. “That really makes me feel quite important,” he smiled to himself. “Fancy having spirits announcing one’s arrival beforehand.”

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

283

He turned his heel on them and . . . strode on toward the city gate. “Did you ﬁnd your kinsman?,” the two Daoists asked. “They are all my kinsmen,” said Monkey. “What, the whole ﬁve hundred?” they asked . . .” If you will release the whole lot of them, I’ll go back with you.” “You must be mad,” they said . . .” So you won’t let them go?” cried Monkey. “Very well then!” And taking his cudgel from behind his ear he rushed at them and gave them such a blow upon the head that their brains gushed out and they fell dead where they had stood. The monks rush up in horror, telling him that he’s killed two of the king’s favorites. They insist that he go back to the city and confess his crime. Monkey then reveals that he is the savior they dream about. With his magic powers he destroys the carts and gives the Buddhists a magical way to protect themselves:

7. Dear Monkey! He plucked out a handful of his hairs, chewed them into small pieces and gave a piece to each Buddhist, saying “Put it under the nail of your thumb and clench your ﬁst. Then you can go where you will, and no one will dare touch you. You have only to press the thumb into the palm of your hand and cry “Great Sage!” I will come at once to help you.” “But father,” they said, “suppose we were a long way off and you could not hear us, what then?” “That is all right,” said Monkey. “If I were ten thousand miles away, it would make no difference; you would still come to no harm.” Some of the bolder among them experimented, murmuring “Great Sage!” while they pressed their thumbs. At once a thunder god armed with an iron cudgel hovered before the face of each, ready to protect him against a whole army of attackers. Meanwhile, Tripitaka and the others have set off for the city. On the way, they meet Monkey and some of the priests. The priests invite the pilgrims to stay at their temple. Because it contained a picture of the king’s ancestor, it was the only Buddhist building not destroyed. Monkey is recognized by an old priest:

8. “I know you are the Great Sage Equal of Heaven,” he said. “Again and again I have dreamed of you. The Spirit of the Planet Venus came to me in my sleep and described you to me, telling me you would come soon and save our lives. It is well you have come now; for if you had waited another day we should have been ghosts, not living men!” In the middle of the night Monkey wakes up. He hears the sound of a great Daoist service. He leaps into the air and observes the scene in the Daoist temple.

UNIT 4 – R

9. In front of the gate was an inscription made of letters embroidered in yellow silk: “Wind and rain in due season; for our lord, ten thousand years of happy reign!” Conspicuous were three venerable Daoists in full sacramental robes, whom Monkey took to be the Tiger Strength, Deer Strength, and Ram Strength Immortals. Before them was ranged a crowd of some eight hundred worshippers, beating drums and gongs, offering incense and confessing their sins. “I would go down and mingle with the crowd,” said Monkey to himself. “But a ‘single strand does not make a thread nor can one hand clap.’ I will go and get Pigsy and Sandy and share the fun.” He found the two sleeping huddled together. “Why aren’t you asleep?” Sandy asked when Monkey woke him. “Get up and come with me,” said Monkey. “We’re all going to have a treat.” “Who wants a treat in the middle of the night, when one’s mouth is dry and one’s eyes won’t stay open?” “The Daoists are celebrating a Mass in their great temple,” said Monkey, “and the whole place is littered with offerings. There are dumplings that must weigh a quart, and cakes weighing ﬁfty pounds, and all kinds of dainties and fruits. Come and enjoy yourself.” Pigsy, hearing in his sleep something about things to eat, at once woke with a start. “Brother, you’re not going to leave me out of it?” he cried. “If you like the idea of something to eat,” said Monkey, “don’t make a fuss and wake up the Master [the monk Tripitaka], but both of you come quietly with me.”

284

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Entrance Ticket to a Journey to the West Attraction in Guangzhou’s Yuexiu Park. From Top to Bottom: Monkey, Pigsy, Tripitaka, and Sandy

(Source: Kirby A. Bartlett-Sloan) http://www.bartlett-sloan.net/Journey.htm

Monkey, Pigsy, and Sandy go to the temple. Monkey causes a great wind to rise up. It knocks over all the lamps, leaving the temple in darkness. The congregation is terrified. The Tiger Strength Immortal stops the service and has everyone go home. The pilgrims go inside. In order to sit and eat in peace, they remove the statues of the three highest gods from the altar. Monkey has Pigsy throw the statues down the privy.6 The three take the place of the statues on the altar and start gobbling the food. After a while, they are interrupted:

UNIT 4 – R

10. There was a little Daoist who suddenly woke up and remembered that he had left his handbell in the temple. “If I lose it,” he said to himself, “I shall get into trouble with the Master tomorrow.” So he said to his bed-fellow, “You go on sleeping, I must go and look for my bell.” He . . . rushed to the temple. After fumbling about for some time, he succeeded in ﬁnding it, and was just turning to go when he heard the sound of breathing. Very much alarmed, he ran toward the door, and in his hurry slipped . . . and fell with a bang, smashing his bell into a thousand pieces. Pigsy could not stop himself from breaking into loud guffaws of laughter, which frightened the little Daoist out of his wits. 3

A pre-modern bathroom, usually just a bench with a hole in it suspended over a pit.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

285

The boy races back to the sleeping quarters and bangs on his Master’s door. He tells his story to the Three Immortals. The Masters, along with a crowd of Daoists, return to the temple. The Daoists enter as Monkey, Pigsy, and Sandy sit frozen and silent on the high altar.

11. “Some rascal must have been here,” said the Tiger Strength Immortal. “All the offerings have been eaten up.” “It looks as though ordinary human beings have been at work,” said the Deer Strength Immortal. “They’ve spat out the fruit stones and skins. It’s strange that there is no one to be seen.” “It’s my idea,” said the Ram Strength Immortal, “that the Three Blessed Ones have been so deeply moved by our prayers and recitations that they have decided to come down and accept our offerings. They may easily be hovering about somewhere on their cranes,7 and it would be a good plan to take advantage of their presence. I suggest that we beg for some holy water and a little Elixir.8 We should get a lot of credit at court if we could use them to the king’s advantage.” The Tiger Strength Immortal performs a ritual dance addressed to the three divinities. He requests that the gods bestow some Elixir and holy water. His efforts are not in vain:

12. . . . Monkey called out in a loud, impressive voice, “My children,” he said, “I must ask you to defer this request. My colleagues and I have come on straight from a peach banquet in Heaven, and we haven’t got any holy water or Elixir with us.” Hearing the deity condescend to address them, the Daoists trembled with religious awe. “Father,” they said, “you surely realize that this is too good an opportunity to be lost. Do not, we beseech you, go back to Heaven without leaving us some sort of magical receipt.” From the altar, Monkey agrees to give them some holy water. He then orders them to leave the temple:

13. “Now go outside the building, close the shutters, and stay there,” said Monkey. “For no one is permitted to witness our holy mysteries.” When all was ready, Monkey got up, lifted his tiger-skin, and pissed into the ﬂower-pot. “Brother,” said Pigsy, highly delighted. “We’ve had some rare games together since I’ve joined you, but this beats all. And that fool Pigsy, lifting his dress, let fall such a cascade as would have made the Lüliang Falls seem a mere trickle. Left with the big jug, Sandy could do no more than half ﬁll it. Then they adjusted their clothes, and sat down decorously as before. “Little ones,” Monkey called out, “you can come and fetch your holy water.”

UNIT 4 – R

14. The Daoists returned, full of gratitude and awe. “Bring me a cup,” said the Tiger Strength Immortal to one of his disciples. “I should like to taste it.” The moment he tasted . . . the Immortal’s lip curled wryly. “Does it taste good?” asked the Deer Strength Immortal. “It’s rather too full-ﬂavored for my liking,” said the Tiger Strength Immortal. “Let me taste it,” said the Ram Strength Immortal. “It smells rather like pig’s urine,” he said doubtfully, when the cup touched his lips. Monkey saw the game was up. “We’ve played our trick,” he said to the others, “and now we’d better take the credit for it.” “How could you be such fools,” he called out to the Daoists, “as to believe that the Deities had come down to earth? We’re no Blessed Trinity, but priests, from China. And what you have been drinking is not the Water of Life, but just our piss!” No sooner did the Daoists hear these words when they rushed out, seized pitchforks, brooms, tiles, stones, and whatever else they could lay hands on, and with one accord rushed at the imposters. In the nick of time Monkey grabbed Sandy with one hand and Pigsy with the other, and rushed them to the door. Riding with him on his shining cloud they were soon back at the temple where Tripitaka was lodged. The next morning, Tripitaka, who had been asleep when the three were in the temple, decides to go to the palace and have the group’s passports put in order. A minister urges the king to let the pilgrims 7 8

286

A beautiful, tall wading bird. Daoist gods and immortals were often pictured riding on them. A liquid that could make you live forever.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

go on their way. He argues that since they were able to travel from far away China, they must have mysterious powers. It would be best, he claims, to let them go. The Daoists enter and tell the king about Monkey’s deeds of the previous day and night. The king is furious and wants to execute the pilgrims. Just then, a group of village elders enters and asks the king to do something about the lack of rain.

15. “Your Majesty,” they said . . .” there has been no rain all spring, and we hope you will ask the Immortals to bring us rain and save the people from drought.” “You may retire,” said the King. “You shall have your rain.” “If you want to know,” said he, turning to Tripitaka, “why I suppressed Buddhism here, it was because some years ago the Buddhists were unable to bring rain, not a drop of it. Fortunately these Immortals arrived and saved us in the nick of time. You have come from a distant land and have attacked the Daoists and their institutions. I ought to deal severely with you, but I am willing to give you one more chance. You shall have a rainmaking competition with the Immortals. If you can produce rain, I will pardon you, sign your passports, and let you go. But if you lose, I shall execute you on the spot.” Monkey laughed. “I don’t know about the others,” he said, “but if it’s a matter of praying I can claim to understand something about it, I assure you.” An altar is built for the Daoist rainmaking ritual. The ceremony begins.

16. The Immortal strode up to the altar, where an assistant handed to him a yellow paper inscribed with diagrams and a sword. Sword in hand he recited some spells and burned a diagram. Then several Daoists came forward with images and a written text, which they burned. A stinging sound came from the tablet which the Immortal was carrying, and at the same moment there was a rush of wind in the air above. “That’s bad,” said Pigsy. “His tablet sounded and he has got as far as producing a gust of wind.” “Be quiet, brother,” said Monkey. “You’ll have enough to do looking after the Master. You may leave the rest to me.” Dear Monkey! He leapt into the air and cried, “Who’s supposed to be in charge of the wind?” At once the Old Woman of the Wind appeared, hugging her bag . . .” I am protecting Tripitaka on his way to India,” said Monkey, “and we are having a competition in rainmaking with the Immortals here. Why are you helping them instead of us? I’ll let you off lightly if you call in the wind. But if there is a breeze enough to stir those Daoists’ whiskers, you will each get twenty with this iron cudgel.” “We shouldn’t dare,” said the Old Woman. And immediately the wind ceased. Pigsy could not refrain from bawling out, “Those Daoists must step down. There is not a breath of wind. They must make way for us at once.” Again the Immortal grasped his tablet, burnt magic slips and struck the altar with a resounding crash. At once the sky became full of clouds and mist. “Who’s supposed to be in charge of the clouds?” Monkey cried, looking up into the sky; and the Cloud Boy and Mist Lad appeared before him, bowing low. When Monkey had explained the situation to them, they immediately cleared the sky, and not a cloud or wreath of mist was left. “You’ve been swindling your Emperor,” jeered Pigsy, “and all your magic is worthless . . .”

UNIT 4 – R

16. Now extremely perturbed, the Immortal leant on his long sword and loosed his hair. Then he burned more slips and recited more spells, banging once more with his tablet. All that happened was in a moment or two the Thunder God and Mother of Lightning appeared in the sky, bowing toward Monkey. “What brings you here?” he said. “The magic of this Immortal,” they said, “is perfectly correct and valid. The spells that he burnt reached the Jade Emperor, and he ordered us to come and make a storm.” “The storm is all right,” said Monkey, “provided that it happens when I want it. But you must hold it up for a bit.” They bowed assent, and no thunder rolled, no lightning ﬂashed.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

287

17. The Immortal, in a perfect frenzy, was burning strips, reciting spells, and striking again and again with his tablet. Nothing happened. “Now it’s my turn,” said Monkey. “I’m not going to burn any magic writings or bang with a tablet. I rely on you two divinities to help me out.” “Tell us what you want done,” said the Thunder God, “and we will do it. Otherwise rain and thunder and lightning will come all mixed up together, and you won’t get proper credit.” “I intend to direct the proceedings with my cudgel.” “Father,” said the God of Thunder, “you’re surely not going to cudgel us?” “Not at all,” said Monkey. “I merely ask you to watch my cudgel. When I point it upward, you’re to send a blast of wind.” “We’re standing by, ready with our wind-bag,” said the Old Woman of the Wind. “The second time I point it upward,” said Monkey, “there are to be clouds, and the third time, thunder and lightning. The fourth time, rain; and the ﬁfth time, the whole storm must cease.” Monkey begins. With Tripitaka reciting Buddhist scripture, he attempts to bring rain.

18. . . . Monkey took out his cudgel and . . . pointed toward the sky. The Old Woman of the Wind at once brought out her bag . . . and with a great roar the wind rushed out. All through the city, tiles were lifted through the air, bricks hurtled, sand and stones ﬂew. When the wind was at its height, Monkey again pointed with his stick, and such black clouds covered the sky that the whole town was dark and even the neighboring palace utterly disappeared. Presently Monkey pointed again, and deafening peals of thunder shook the earth. It was as though a hundred thousand chariots were rolling by. The inhabitants of the town were frightened out of their wits and one and all began burning incense and saying their prayers. “Now Thunder God,” screamed Monkey, “do your work! Strike down all greedy and corrupt officials, all disobedient and surly sons, as a warning to the people!” The din grew louder than ever. The Monkey pointed again, and such a rain fell that it seemed as if the whole Yellow River had suddenly fallen out of the sky. This rain fell from early morning till noon. The town was already one vast swamp, when the king sent a message saying, “That’s enough rain. If there is much more it will ruin the crops and we shall be worse off than ever.” Monkey at once pointed with his cudgel, and in an instant the storm completely ceased, and there was not a cloud in the sky. The king was delighted . . .” In the past we have seen our Immortals bring rain successfully. But even they could not stop the rain all in a moment . . .”

UNIT 4 – R

19. Monkey came forward and cried, “Your Majesty, this was after all a triﬂing and commonplace performance, and it is not worthwhile disputing who should get credit for it. The four dragon kings, who came at our bidding, are however still waiting, invisible, not far off in the sky. If these Immortals can induce them to show themselves, I will admit that they should be given the credit.” “I’ve been king for twenty-three years,” said the king. “But no one has ever been able to show me a dragon, and I hardly know what one looks like. I am prepared to reward anyone who can do this, and I shall certainly punish anyone who claims to be able to do so, and fails.” The Daoists knew quite well that such a thing was beyond their powers. All the same, they called; but no dragon answered the summons, with Monkey standing there. Now it was Monkey’s turn. “Dragon Aoguang,” he called, “are you there? Let’s have a look at you and your brothers.” The four dragons at once appeared, surging through the clouds . . . (Waley 1958: 211-233, passim ).

288

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

Graphic Organizers STORY MAP

The setting: Where and when does the story take place?

Point of view: Who is the narrator or person telling the story?

Who are the main characters?

Statement of the problem:

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

Event 4

Event 5 UNIT 4 – R

Statement of the solution:

Theme of the story (what is the story really about?):

Values brought out in the story:

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

289

STORY STRUCTURE

1. BEGINNING What are the first events that happen in the story?

2. PROBLEM: What is the complication?

Rising Actions: Events that lead to the climax. 1. 1. 1. 2. 1. 1. 3. 1. 1.

3. CLIMAX: High point of the story. Will the problem be solved? Falling Actions: Events that lead from the climax to the end of the story. 1. 2. 3.

UNIT

4. RESOLUTION: How is the problem handled?

4 – R

5. END: What is the final outcome?

290

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

CHARACTER MAP

Character: Use relevant words and phrases to describe the following things about the character.

LOOKS (Physical appearance, gestures, clothing, etc.)

ACTS (How does he or she behave?)

FEELS (His or her emotions)

SAYS (Important things that effect the other characters) UNIT 4 – R

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 4. Religions Along The Silk Roads

291

5. Art Along The Silk Roads Unit S BUDDHIST IMAGES: CULTURAL EXCHANGE BETWEEN INDIA AND CHINA Unit T MOSQUES IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD AND CHINA Unit U WANG ZHAOJUN: A TRIBUTE PRINCESS BRINGS PEACE TO THE NORTHERN FRONTIER Unit V TWO MOGAO CAVE PAINTINGS AND TWO JATAKA TALES Unit W THE ARTS TRAVEL THE SILK ROADS

Unit S

BUDDHIST IMAGES: CULTURAL EXCHANGE

UNIT 5 – S

BETWEEN INDIA AND CHINA

Essential Questions: How do Buddhist religious images change as they travel from one culture to another along the Silk Roads? How do religious sculptures become living things rather than objects? Learning Experience: Students will (1) look at some of the stylistic and iconographic1 elements important to Buddhist craftsmen and the Buddhist faithful; (2) study changes in artistic style as Buddhism traveled from India through Central Asia to China; (3) explore the magical side of religious art by seeing how religious images are invested with power. Anticipatory Set: It’s not difficult to think of music as being alive: it makes people dance and feel all kinds of emotions. Religious art also makes a strong claim on the emotions. Painting and sculpture were important carriers of the Buddhist message. This unit shows how artistic styles changed as they traveled from India to China and how the arts were made to come alive with emotion to awe and attract the faithful. Context: Indian craftsmen probably began creating Buddhist images around the ﬁrst century CE. Although they had well-established pre-Buddhist traditions to draw upon, they still needed to develop ways of conveying Buddhist ideas. How, for example, could they show that Sakyamuni (c. 563-483 BCE), the historical founder of Buddhism, was both a human being and a spiritually perfected being? They did this by focusing on special physical features described in Buddhist texts. These were called lakshanas.2 Images of the Buddha—both sculpted and painted—were made with:

• • • •

Circular bumps on the tops of their heads (ushnisha) denoting wisdom; A circle placed in the center of the forehead (urna), another mark of wisdom, described in scriptures as a tuft of hair; The outlines of a lotus ﬂower on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet; Long earlobes, symbolic of nobility.

All of the above were indications of the Buddha’s sacred status. There are thirty-two major lakshana, but few images include all of them. In addition, Buddha images were given speciﬁc hand gestures, called mudras. Mudras symbolize aspects of the Buddha’s teaching and religious activity: meditation, fearlessness, debate, warding off evil, prayer, teaching.3 Since the Buddha was a spiritually perfect being, he was given an ideal physique. Images were created according to elaborate systems of proportion and certain features were sometimes given legendary origins: The tight curls on the heads of many Buddha images, for instance, were said to be snails that climbed up to shield him from the sun during meditation. Missionaries and traders travelling along the Silk Roads transmitted Buddhist images to China. They carried Buddhist texts, illustrated copybooks, and small objects of worship. Although the earliest evi1 2 3

Underlined terms appear in the glossary at the end of this unit. This and other terms are in Sanskrit, the ancient classical language of India. See http://www.buddhanet.net

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

295

dence for Buddhism in China dates from 65 CE, it didn’t become widespread until the third and fourth centuries. UNIT 5 – S

The earliest Chinese Buddhist images relied heavily on Indian prototypes, especially for the appearance of the face, robes, and body.4 A uniquely Chinese style of Buddhist art developed during the Northern Wei period (386-534 CE), when a non-Chinese people, the Tuoba, controlled north China. This dynasty sponsored the construction of huge image-ﬁlled caves that still survive today.5 Many Northern Wei ﬁgures are distinctive for their slender proportions and linear design. The ﬂuttering scarf-like drapery seems in constant motion and there is almost no sense of a body underneath. This is characteristic of Chinese rather than Indian art (see B, below). Over the centuries, Indian art exerted varying degrees of inﬂuence on Chinese Buddhist imagery. During periods of active exchange, travelers, texts, and sacred objects ﬂowed freely into China and inﬂuenced Chinese Buddhist art. By contrast, when the trade routes were unsafe, Chinese artistic styles developed more independently. By the twelfth century, when Buddhism had ceased to exist as an organized religion in India, this inﬂuence came to an end. The arts are central to the transmission of the Mahayana Buddhist message. Famous Buddha images or monuments attracted pilgrims from all over Asia; great cave temples ﬁlled with sculpture and paintings were used for worship and meditation. Also, the creation of religious art itself was surrounded by magic and ritual. New statues were consecrated in ceremonies where the pupils of the eyes were painted in; relics, scriptures, magic spells, or textile models of human organs would be put within special hollowed-out places. All this served to endow images with sacred life and power (Ghose 1998: 121; Nickel 2002: 23-25). The ﬁrst activity in this unit focuses on stylistic change in Buddhist art; the second on ritual, magic and the creation and use of images. Teacher Resource for Activity 1

Activity 1 consists of three Buddha images, one from India and two from China, plus three comparison images that are unidentiﬁed on the student handouts (pp. 302-303). These are similar in origin and style to each of the identiﬁed images. The following descriptions discuss the three identiﬁed Buddha images.6

296

Visit the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD website http://www.metmuseum.org/special/se_event.asp?OccurrenceId={8DC7B584-ACB9-4D15-ABCB-2B0CE09C6652} See http://www.orientalarchitecture.com. Click on “China,” scroll down to “Datong/Yungang Grottoes.”

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

A. Standing Buddha—India (Gupta period, c. 319-500 CE)—Stone Carving UNIT 5 – S

Gupta Period (c. 319-500 CE) Mottled Red Sandstone 33 in. high x 16 in. wide Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Technique: carving (Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Enid A. Haupt Gift, 1979 [1979.6] Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/viewOne.asp?dep=6&viewMode=0&item=1979%2E6

Gupta sculpture, the classic creation of Buddhism in India, established the standard type of the Buddha image. This was exported in two main directions—to Indonesia, and through Central Asia to the Far East. Whenever one thinks of the Buddha image one thinks of the Gupta type or its derivatives (Lee 1973: 106). One goal of Indian craftsmen was to convey the idea of prana or “breath.” The “breath” was spiritual rather than physical. South Asian sculptors and painters made full-bodied, ﬂeshy ﬁgures that looked as if their skins were ﬁlled with air, like balloons. Their contours were fully rounded and the bones and muscles invisible beneath the skin. The robe worn by the ﬁgure was clearly made of thin cloth. This is sometimes referred to as a “wet look.” A: Unidentified Comparison Piece

Seated Buddha India, Mathura, 3rd Century Mottled Red Sandstone 25 in. high Cleveland Museum of Art Technique: carving (Source: Cleveland Museum of Art) http://www.clemusart.com/explore/work.asp?searchText=seated+buddha&recNo=0&tab =2&display=

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

297

B. Maitreya Altarpiece—Eastern Wei Dynasty (534-549)—China—Stone Carving UNIT 5 – S

Stele with Sakymuni and Bodhisattvas China, Eastern Wei Dynasty (534-549) Limestone; 30 in. high Cleveland Museum of Art Technique: carving (Source: Cleveland Museum of Art) http://www.clemusart.com/explore/work.asp?searchText=stele&recNo=3&tab=2&display=

The centuries between 220 and 589 CE in China are broadly known as the “Period of Disunion” or the “Northern and Southern Dynasties.”6 In the early fourth century, North China fell to groups of semi-nomadic people who had settled within its frontiers. Warfare and famine drove sixty to seventy percent of the Chinese upper classes south, where they established a series of kingdoms known as the “Southern Dynasties.” China wouldn’t be united under a powerful dynasty again until 589. Buddhism became well-established in northern China during this period. Its promise of universal salvation found a ready audience in such unstable times.7 The Wei dynasty was founded by the Tuoba clan. The Tuoba were Xianbei, a people originally from southern Manchuria. This image was made during the Eastern Wei, a short-lived successor to Northern Wei. The central ﬁgure is clearly a Buddha or enlightened being. It has all the correct iconographic markings—the bump on top of the head (ushnisha) and the long earlobes. Although the Buddha wears monk’s robes based on Indian styles, they are thick and heavy, completely cover the body beneath, and fall in highly stylized folds. The body of the Buddha seems to have no physical substance—his chest is sunken beneath the neckline of the robes, and the contours of his torso are hidden. Both the hemline of the central Buddha and the ends of the halo behind him are linear designs that vividly convey energy and movement. The ﬂanking Bodhisattvas are depicted wearing worldly robes and ornaments. Since they are beings who delay entrance into Nirvana in order to help others reach enlightenment, this is said to symbolize their connection to the material world.

6 7

298

Chronological Table, p. 50. Daoist religion, China’s indigenous faith, also became established during this era.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

B: Unidentified Comparison Piece UNIT 5 – S

Maitreya Altarpiece Northern Wei Dynasty, dated 524 CE, China Gilt Bronze 30 in. high Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Technique: casting (Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1938 [38.158.1a-n] Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/06/eac/ho_38.158.1a-n.htm

C. Seated Buddha—Tang dynasty (early 8th Century)—Cast Bronze

Vairocana Buddha China, Tang Dynasty (618-907), c. 670-680 Stone 50 ft. high Longmen Caves, Henan Province, China Technique: carving (Source: Photo courtesy of Robert Fiala, 1988, Luoyang)

Over the centuries, Indian art exerted varying degrees of inﬂuence on Chinese Buddhist imagery. During periods of active exchange, travelers, texts, and sacred objects ﬂowed freely into China. This resulted in an increased resemblance between contemporary Indian and Chinese Buddhist images. A movement toward a more three-dimensional Indian style took place in the sixth century and ﬂourished in Chinese Buddhist art during the Tang dynasty (618-907). In part, this was because connections between China and Central Asia over the Silk Roads had reached a high point during Tang. The body of the huge Vairocana Buddha8 from the Longmen Caves 9 was no longer lost in drapery. It appears to wear its robes, rather than disappear beneath them. The body is full, solid, and ﬂeshy. 8 9

“Vairocana” means “Illuminating One.” While Shakymuni is the historical Buddha, Vairocana represents his supreme cosmic aspect. The Longmen caves are located about ten miles south of the city of Luoyang in Henan province.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

299

C: Unidentified Comparison Piece UNIT 5 – S

Tang Dynasty, Early 8th Century, China Gilt Bronze 8 in. high Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Technique: casting (Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1943 [43.24.3] Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/buda/ho_43.24.3.htm

Rationale: Students will learn how the Buddha image changed as it traveled from India to China over the Silk Roads. They will also explore the magical side of religious art through three reading selections. Time: Two or three forty-ﬁve minute sessions. Instructional Resources: Three Buddha images; three unidentiﬁed comparison images of similar style, three document-based questions, glossary. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: This unit consists of two activities.

•

Activity 1: Distribute images A, B, and C. Teacher and class discuss each image within the context of cultural diffusion along the Silk Roads. They go over physical factors such as size, materials used, techniques (deﬁnitions are in the Glossary, p. 307). The teacher then questions the class about the stylistic elements of the three ﬁgures. Some suggested questions: Image A • •

What does the “wet look” enable the sculptor to show? Can you see the bones and muscles beneath the skin of this ﬁgure? Image B

• •

300

How do you know this ﬁgure is a Buddha? Do the folds of the Buddha’s clothing resemble real cloth?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Image C • •

How are energy and movement conveyed in this image? Compared to image (A), what is the relation between the Buddha’s clothing and the body it covers? How does this sculpture differ from the “wet look” of (A)?

UNIT 5 – S

Next the class is divided into groups of three. Each group receives the three unidentiﬁed ﬁgures. Each group member gets a different image to identify by comparing it with the images previously discussed by the whole class. Each group presents its results. The unidentiﬁed images are discussed and identiﬁed by the whole group. For a homework assignment, students choose one image and write a paragraph discussing their reactions to the piece. •

Activity 2: Three document-based questions: (1) the power of images according to the Lotus Sutra; (2) painting in the pupils of the Buddha’s eyes, a ritual from modern-day Sri Lanka; (3) Buddhist images in action from a Tang dynasty short story. Students will answer the questions following the documents and then write a brief paragraph.

Whole Group Reflection: Why do art styles change as they move from one culture to another? Does everything change or do some things remain the same?

If religious images can be made from twigs or by scratching pictures on the ground (Activity 2, Document 1), why bother to have craftsmen devote years of training to carving stone or casting metal? Instructional Modification: Teachers can assign parts of “The Artist’s Tale” in Susan Whitﬁeld’s Life Along the Silk Road.10 This is a ﬁctionalized account of a tenth-century painter working on one of the Mogao caves near Dunhuang. Application: Students can compare Buddhism with other religions (Islam, Judaism) that strongly discourage the use of religious images.

Susan Whitfield. Life Along the Silk Road. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), pp. 206-222.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

301

Student Handouts UNIT

Activity 1: Three Buddha Images

5 – S

A. Standing Buddha-India

B. Stele with Sakyamuni and Bodhisattvas—China

C. Seated Buddha

Vairocana Buddha China, Tang Dynasty (618-907), c. 670-680 Stone 50 ft. high Longmen Caves, Henan Province, China Technique: carving (Source: Photo courtesy of Robert Fiala, 1988, Luoyang)

302

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Unidentified Comparison Piece 1 UNIT 5 – S

Unidentified Comparison Piece 2

Unidentified Comparison Piece 3

(Source: Cleveland Museum of Art) http://www.clemusart.com/explore/work.asp?searchText=seated+buddha&recNo=0&tab =2&display=

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

303

Activity 2: Three Documents UNIT 5 – S

PART A DOCUMENT 1: FROM ENNIN’S DIARY: MAKING A STATUE OF MANJUSRI*

Manjusri on a Lion China, 12th or 13th century Gilt bronze, 21 in. high Kimbell Art Museum, Ft. Worth, Texas (Source: Copyright © 2005 Kimbell Art Museum) http://www.kimbellart.org/database/index.cfm?detail=yes&ID=AP%201987.05%20a,b

Manjusri was the bodhisattva of wisdom, worshipped all over East Asia. This document is by Ennin (793864), a Japanese monk who wrote a diary about his pilgrimage to China. Here he tells about a famous statue of Manjusri he saw in a monastery. When it was being made, it split apart six times. The artist felt that Manjusri was displeased with his work and prayed to the bodhisattva to show him his true appearance.

As soon as he had made his prayer, he opened his eyes and saw before him the bodhisattva Manjusri on a golden-colored lion. After some time, Manjusri mounted a multicolored cloud and ﬂew up into the sky. The artist wept for joy. He then realized that the statue he had made before had not been right. He changed his model to match what he had seen in size and appearance. Thus the seventh time he cast it, it did not crack; in fact, everything proved easy to do. Once the statue was ﬁnished, it was placed in this hall. With tears in his eyes, the artist said, “What a miracle, I have seen what has never been seen before. I pray that in all my successive lives, age after age, I will be a disciple of Manjusri.” Having said this, he died.

1. Someone once said that art is “one tenth inspiration and nine tenths perspiration.” Does this passage agree or disagree with this saying?

2. From a Buddhist point of view, is this story tragic because of the artist’s death? Why or why not?

304

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 2: PAINTING THE EYES OF THE BUDDHA UNIT

A Buddha image wasn’t “alive” until the pupils of the eyes were painted. Every Buddhist culture placed importance on this. The following modern account is about the Eye Festival in Sri Lanka. This passage tells us a lot about the power of religious images and the power of art.

5 – S

The Buddha image is treated with the greatest respect. One particular ceremony known as the Eye Festival gives an indication of the high regard and reverence paid to it. The ceremony is an elaborate long-drawn-out one, the most important aspect of which is the ritual of painting the eyes on the image. It is the last and most important act of the whole Eye Festival. In olden days a king or someone of high standing probably did this. Today a specialist craftsman is carefully chosen to perform this most sacred and awesome act. On the day when the ceremony is to take place, the craftsman comes in procession from his home to the place where the image is. He offers prayers . . . Then he goes to the place where the image is, accompanied by another, who brings a box of colors and a mirror. This mirror is held in front of the image and the craftsman, looking at the mirror, paints the eyes over his shoulders or sideways, without looking at the image . . . . . . It is believed that the gaze of the image is so powerful that no one must look at it direct. That is why the sculptor uses a mirror . . . It is believed that once the eyes are set the image comes alive, so to speak (Adapted from De Silva 1974: 118).

1. What makes the eyes of a Buddha image so important? (Hints: Think of the eyes of someone you admire or fear. Also, draw a face with the eyes blank, then draw in the pupils of the eyes. What happened?)

2. Look at the eyes of the images in the handouts. Are they important? What word(s) would you use to describe them?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

305

DOCUMENT 3: BUDDHIST GUARDIAN FIGURES IN ACTION* UNIT 5 – S

Colossal Guardian Figure (c. 670-680) from the Longmen Caves (Near Luoyang, China, Tang Dynasty, 618-907)

(Source: Photo courtesy of Robert Fiala, 1988, Luoyang)

In this story, also from the Tang, guardian figures enforce the Buddhist rule against eating meat and drinking alcohol.

At the gate of the Kaiyuan monastery in Wuzhou there are two . . . guardian ﬁgures whose divine powers have been celebrated for generations. Birds dare not go near them. When sick people pray to them they get results time and again, and come visiting to pay respects. A bureau director from the prefecture held a banquet on the upper ﬂoor of the monastery gate. Everyone pointed out that the guardian ﬁgures were there—that wouldn’t do. But one man said, “They are only clay: what can they do?” And he put meat and liquor in their mouths. In a moment clouds closed in and lightning played around the gate-tower; gales and thunder raged, as the meat and drink ﬂew into the air to the terror of all present. The particular man who had deﬁled the guardian ﬁgures was dragged out hundreds of feet from the gate-tower and struck dead (Adapted from Dudbridge 1998: 379-380).

Vocabulary Defile: To corrupt, to make dirty.

1. Relate the pose and expression of the Longmen guardian figure to the content of the story.

306

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

PART B UNIT

Directions: Write a brief, well-organized essay entitled “Creating a Living Buddhist Image.” It should include an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

5 – S

Task: Using information from the documents to support your ideas,

• • •

Describe how an artist can be divinely inspired. Give an example of how an image can be made to “come alive.” Describe how, once successfully made, the kind of power images have.

Student Handout:

Glossary11 Casting: Making sculpture using casts or by shaping in a mold; usually refers to pouring liquid material into a mold. Carving: The act of shaping, marking, or decorating wood, stone, or another material by cutting or incising, typically using tools such as chisels and other blades. Gilt (Gilding): Surface application of metal in the form of leaf or powder applied directly to the surface to approximate the effect of solid or inlaid metal. Iconography: The traditional images or symbols associated with a subject, especially a religious or legendary subject. Lacquer: Objects, usually made of thin wood, which are coated and decorated with layers of resin secreted from certain species of trees. Linear: An emphasis on line as opposed to volume. Modeling: Use of soft materials such as wax or clay to create three-dimensional objects. Stylization: Stylized forms take natural appearances such as the shape of an object and depict them in accordance with artistic ideals or conventions. “Stylized” is the opposite of “naturalistic”— depicting things based on the observation of individual examples. Volume: The quantity or mass of an object or material that occupies space.

Most of these glossary entries are cited (or adapted) from the Getty Art and Architecture Thesaurus on Line http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/aat/.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

307

Unit T

MOSQUES IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD AND CHINA

Essential Questions: How do mosques reﬂect the practice of Islam? How do contemporary Chinese mosques reﬂect how Chinese Muslims relate to the Islamic world outside of China? UNIT 5 – T

Learning Experience: Students will look at mosques in Central Asia, Iran, and North Africa, and study some of their basic architectural features. They will also compare them with two mosques, one ancient and one modern, in Xi’an, China. They will see how the appearance of a mosque can reﬂect changing views of what it means to be a Muslim in contemporary China. Anticipatory Set: Show the class a photo of an office building and a church. Ask them to identify the differences between the two, both in terms of appearance (size, shape, decoration, etc.) and function. Tell students that in this unit they will learn about how another kind of building, the mosque, ﬁts the practice of Islam in both the Middle East and China. Context: The spread of Islam from Arabia to the rest of the Middle East and beyond is one of the great military and political achievements of the pre-modern world. The story begins with the Hijra (“Migration”) in 622 CE, when Muhammad and his followers went from Mecca to Medina to escape enemies and forge political-religious alliances. By the early eighth century CE, about a century after Muhammad’s death, Arab armies had conquered the Middle East, Iran, North Africa, Spain, and parts of Central Asia.

As a center of worship and community activity, the mosque accompanied the spread of Islam. The word “mosque” comes from the Arabic word masjid, “the place where one goes to prostrate oneself ” (Denny 1994: 121). The ﬁrst mosque was the house of the Prophet Muhammad in Medina [Saudi Arabia]. This was a simple rectangular . . . enclosure containing rooms for the Prophet and his wives and a shaded area on the south side of the courtyard which could be used for prayer in the direction of Mecca. This building became the model for subsequent mosques which had the same basic courtyard layout with a prayer area against the qibla wall.1 . . . The roofs of the prayer area . . . were supported by columns . . . Several features which were later to become standard features of mosques were introduced at an early stage. The ﬁrst of these is the minbar,2 or pulpit, which was used by Muhammad to give sermons. A later introduction was the mihrab or prayer niche which was ﬁrst introduced in the eighth century. Other features include the ablutions facilities and a central pool or fountain and the minaret . . . (http://archnet.org/library/dictionary). Although mosques changed in accordance with regional architectural styles and building techniques, these basic features remained. Mosques play an important role in the daily life of Muslims.3 The mosque is

308

The qibla is the direction facing Mecca. It indicates the direction the worshipper must face while praying. Underlined words are defined in the “Basic Features of a Mosque,” the table at the end of the classroom exercise for Activity 1 (p. 307). For a virtual tour of an English mosque, visit: http://www.hitchams.suffolk.sch.uk/mosque/default.htm.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

. . . a multipurpose building where important public announcements and proclamations are made, crowds are gathered in times of crisis—for example, to rally support for defense or holy warfare—and where at the Friday worship service, the ruler’s name is mentioned in the sermon, thus demonstrating his continued authority . . . The major mosque also often has an educational function, with learned shaykhs holding forth either in the mosque itself or in special attached buildings or arcades. The mosque provides a place for men to rest, to socialize, to take time out from a busy day in order to meditate for a while, even to eat, as well as, of course, to perform the obligatory daily salats [formal prayer/worship performed ﬁve times a day] (Denny 1994: 295-296). The history of Islam in China is almost as old as the history of Islam itself. Muslims came to China UNIT

. . . as political emissaries and merchants within a few decades of Muhammad’s ﬂight from Mecca to Medina in 622 . . . For six centuries thereafter Arabs and Persians . . . played signiﬁcant roles in China’s economic life, especially along the Silk Roads in the northwest and in the port cities of the southeast coast (Lipman 1997: 25).

5 – T

Beginning with the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 CE), large populations of Muslims began to settle permanently throughout China. Some, such as the Uyghurs of the northwest, weren’t ethnically Chinese; others, like the nine million Chinese Muslims known as Hui, are found today practically everywhere in the PRC and, except for their practice of Islam, for the most part speak, look, and act Chinese (Gillette 2000: 11). In this unit, students will learn about some of the basic architectural features of the mosque.4 Also, in looking at how an “old style” and a “new style” mosque divided opinion among Chinese Muslims, they will gain insight into what it means to be a Muslim in contemporary China. Rationale: What is the relation between religion and religious architecture? How do buildings help people express and deﬁne religious faith? Time: One forty-minute session Instructional Resources: Diagram showing the features of a mosque; photos of various mosques; document-based questions. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedures: This unit consists of two activities:

•

Activity 1: How do mosques reﬂect the practice of Islam? This consists of two parts, (A) an internet-based homework assignment on mosques and worship in Islam; (B) a classroom activity where students identify the basic features of a mosque using a diagram and a group of photos.

•

Activity 2: How does a contemporary mosque reﬂect what Chinese Muslims think about the Islamic world outside China? Students learn about two kinds of Chinese mosques, one ancient and one modern, and the reasons behind their architectural differences.

Whole Group Reflection: How do religious buildings express religious ideas?

For a tutorial on the arts of Islam, including architecture, see: http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/learning/.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

309

Instructional Modification: Students will be given the following two options as a homework assignment:

• •

Visit a mosque and write a 3-5 page report—provide pictures if possible. Interview a practicing Muslim.

Application: How do the opinions of Chinese Muslims concerning the New Mosque versus the Great Mosque reﬂect contemporary Islam as it appears in today’s headlines? Activity 1: How Do Mosques Reflect the Practice of Islam? UNIT 5 – T

A: HOMEWORK READING ON THE WEB

What is a mosque and how do Muslims worship? Access the following web page on worship in the mosque: http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/worship/index.shtml Read the page and also access the highlighted words and terms. Use these questions to help organize your research results:

1. What do Muslims do before entering the mosque?

2. What must they do before prayer?

3. How are mosques decorated? Why?

4. Where do people kneel or stand when they pray?

5. What is a mihrab?

6. What is the function of a minaret?

310

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

B: CLASSROOM EXERCISE What are the Basic Features of a Mosque? Using the following diagram as reference, identify the architectural features appearing in the six photographs. Indicate which photograph shows which feature in the table on p. 313. Diagram 1: Layout of a Mosque

UNIT 5 – T

(Source: Microsoft Encarta, http://encarta.msn.com/media_461550648_761579171_-1_1/Layout_of_a_Mosque.html)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

311

B: CLASSROOM EXERCISE 1. Bin Yusuf Mosque, Morocco

2. Qayt Bay Mosque, Egypt

UNIT 5 – T (Source: Image courtesy of The Threshold Society) http://www.sufism.org/society/salaat/wudu.html

3. Emin Mosque, Turfan

(Source: Aga Khan Visual Archive, MIT) http://vandyck.anu.edu.au/work/teach/context/libraries.mit.edu/rvc/aka/ agakhan/AKA_SELECTED_MOSQUES/59.html

4. Mosque of Amr Ibn al-As, Egypt

312

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Marleen Kassel, 2001)

(Source: Courtesy of the Fine Arts Library, Harvard College Library)

5. Neighborhood Mosque, China5

6. Sahn-I Kuds, Iran

(Source: Aga Khan Visual Archive, MIT)

http://vandyck.anu.edu.au/work/teach/context/libraries.mit.edu/rvc/aka/ agakhan/AKA_SELECTED_MOSQUES/53.html

http://vandyck.anu.edu.au/work/teach/context/libraries.mit.edu/rvc/aka/ agakhan/AKA_SELECTED_MOSQUES/akjpegs/C2228-065.jpg

In Kashi (Kashgar), an old oasis town along the Silk Roads in northwest China.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Basic Features of a Mosque

Feature

Which photograph?

Dome: Circular construction used as a means of roofing. UNIT 5 – T

Fountain: Place to wash before prayers.

Minarets: Towers from which Muslims are called to prayer.

Mihrab: A niche in the wall pointing toward Mecca. This shows worshippers where to face as they pray. Qibla wall: The courtyard wall facing the direction of the holy city Mecca.

Minbar: Similar to a pulpit.

Entrance: Monumental portal, gateway, or doorway, usually to a building or courtyard. (Adapted from http://archnet.org/library/dictionary)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

313

Activity 2: Chinese Muslims and Chinese Mosques

How does a contemporary Chinese mosque reflect what Chinese Muslims think about the Islamic world outside China? Islam spread throughout the Middle East, Iran, and Central Asia beginning in the seventh century. China’s first contacts with Muslims—Arab and Persian traders on the Silk Roads—began around the same time.

UNIT 5 – T

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, large numbers of Muslims began to settle in China. The two mosques discussed below were both built in what is today the city of Xi’an. Xi’an is an ancient city in northern China, known as Chang’an for much of its early history. Chang’an was once the eastern end of the Silk Roads. One mosque was built in the fourteenth century and one in the 1990s. One is a Chinese-style building, and one is Middle-Eastern in style and resembles some of the buildings in Activity 1. The following documents and pictures discuss these two buildings. In answering the attached questions, you will not only learn about Chinese mosques, but also about how the appearance of a mosque can reflect changing views of what it means to be a Muslim in today’s China.

Shops Outside the Great Mosque in Xi’an, China

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Lier Chen, Xi’an, 2004)

314

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 1: BUILDING MATERIALS The most important materials that go into making a building are the ones that need to bear weight. The foundation bears the weight of the walls, and the walls bear the weight of the roof. Since buildings like mosques and churches need a lot of open space inside for worshippers, columns might also be needed to hold up the roof. Building materials depend on geography: some materials are more abundant in certain parts of the world than others. Stone and brick were the most common materials used to build mosques in the Middle East, Iran, and Central Asia. In China the situation was different: UNIT

An important characteristic of Chinese traditional architecture . . . is the reliance upon a wooden framework, for brick and stone structures were never as widely adopted. The skeleton of such buildings is a wood frame which bears the weight of the roof as well as upper stories. Walls are for enclosure, and support only their own mass.

5 – T

. . . Because wooden structures must be moisture-and rain-proof, every structure sits on an above-ground platform and is sheltered by a roof with a rather prominent overhang . . . The roof has concave surfaces that curve upward . . . Wooden structures need the protection of paint to prevent decay (Steinhardt 1984: 10, 11, 13).

1. Compare the materials used in Middle Eastern and Chinese buildings.

2. What is the function of a Chinese building’s wooden frame?

3. Why are Chinese buildings painted?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

315

DOCUMENT 2: THE GREAT MOSQUE (XI’AN, CHINA) The Great Mosque is located in Xi’an’s Muslim district, home to about 30,000 Hui, or Chinese Muslims. It is one of the most important Muslim buildings in China. Built in 1392 CE, it consists of various buildings arranged within ﬁve courtyards. a. Entrance Gate

b. Main Prayer Hall

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Lier Chen, 2004, Xi’an)

UNIT 5 – T

c. The “Tower of Looking into the Mind-and-Heart” that Serves as a Minaret.

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Rex Geissler, GCI, http://greatcommission.com/china/2002078.jpg, 2002, Xi’an)

4. Describe two features that make the above buildings look typically Chinese rather than typically Islamic. Refer to Document 1.

316

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

DOCUMENT 3: A REVOLUTION IN CHINESE ISLAM At the end of the nineteenth century, currents of radical religious change originating in Arabia affected Chinese Muslims. The desire to make Islam less Chinese and more like Islam in the Middle East, Iran, and Central Asia touched Muslims all over China. This trend continues to the present day. One inﬂuential reformer was . . . opposed to . . . all external inﬂuences on Islam, refused to learn to read and write Chinese, forbade his children to learn Chinese, and insisted on Arabic and Persian education as the foundation of Muslim religious practice (Adapted from Lipman 1997: 205). UNIT

Imitation of Arab dress, architecture, and other practices was an important feature of Islamic reform . . . By the 1980s and 1990s, Arabic dress, architecture, and Qur’anic pronunciation6 had spread to far-ﬂung Muslim communities as various Muslims strove to recapture the “one true religion” . . . (Adapted from Gillette 2000: 77).

5 – T

5. How did reformers want to change education?

6. Describe two things characteristic of the “one true religion.”

Since the language of the Qur’an and its correct pronunciation are regarded as the perfect expression of the Arabic language, Muslims who recite and memorize the book are urged to learn from experienced reciters.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

317

DOCUMENT 4: THE NEW MOSQUE—AN EXPRESSION OF RELIGIOUS REFORM The New Mosque in Xi’an, Completed in 1994, Reflects “Islamic” Style.

UNIT 5 – T

One aspect of reform was seen in architecture. The New Mosque in Xi’an expressed a view of Islam different from the architecture of the ancient Great Mosque.

Some local Hui also criticized the traditional mosques for looking “just like Han [Chinese Buddhist and Daoist] temples.” Jiqing, the 70-year-old gatekeeper at the New Mosque, pointed out that not only did many of the local mosques look like [Chinese] temples on the outside, but most had images of dogs, cats, phoenixes, and other animals on the inside, which he objected to as violating the Qur’anic prohibition on making images (Gillette 2000: 96). Members of the New Mosque spoke enthusiastically about their new complex, describing it as having a . . .“truly Islamic” style. Jiqing characterized it as “exactly the same as [the mosques in] foreign countries.” On one occasion, he pulled out magazine pictures of Middle Eastern mosques . . . for me to examine. “Look” he said excitedly. “Just the same as our mosque!” (Gillette 2000: 98).

7. What features of local mosques did Jiqing object to? Why?

8. Look at the photo. What features of this building make it “truly Islamic?”

318

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Unit U

WANG ZHAOJUN: A TRIBUTE PRINCESS BRINGS PEACE TO THE NORTHERN FRONTIER

Essential Question: What role does the tribute princess play in the relation between agrarian China and the nomads of the northern frontier? Learning Experience: Students will read a shortened version of Autumn in the Palace of Han, a play by Ma Zhiyuan (c. 1250-1324 CE). This play is about Wang Zhaojun, a famous tribute princess. Tribute princesses were palace woman sent to marry “barbarian” rulers. In reading her story, students will learn about (1) China’s pre-modern foreign relations; (2) the condition of women in traditional China; (3) the poetic language and imagery used to describe China’s age-old involvement with the northern frontier. Anticipatory Set: Students read about the legendary tribute princess, Wang Zhaojun. The song and poetry of Autumn in the Palace of Han set romance, extreme culture shock, and suicide within the context of China’s relations with its nomad enemy, the Xiongnu empire.

UNIT 5 – U

Context: China became a uniﬁed empire during the Qin (221-206 BCE) and Han dynasties (202 BCE-220 CE). In 209 BCE, another empire also arose in East Asia, that of a nomadic people whom the Chinese called “Xiongnu.”1 The Xiongnu came from what is today Mongolia. For much of the Han period, China’s foreign policy was centered upon its relations with these northern nomads. When the Xiongnu raided China’s frontiers, the imperial government would either send armies to punish them, or attempt to negotiate peace. They would give gifts, cash subsidies, and permission for the Xiongnu to trade in frontier markets. “Tribute princesses,” court women sent as brides to the Xiongnu ruler, were another form of exchange in Han-Xiongnu diplomatic relations.

The most famous tribute princess was Wang Zhaojun, who belonged to the harem of Emperor Yuan (r. 48-33 BCE) of the Former Han dynasty (206 BCE-25 CE). Her story, much of it legend, has deeply touched the Chinese for some two thousand years. Wang Zhaojun has appeared in poetry, drama, painting, and even on postage stamps.2 Her story was also popular in other parts of East Asia. According to legend, Emperor Yuan sent out painters to make portraits of candidates for his harem. Many families bribed the painters to beautify their daughters, since having a relative in the imperial harem was highly prestigious. The beautiful Wang Zhaojun, however, had no money to bribe the court painter Mao Yanshou. To get back at her, he didn’t ﬂatter her beauty in his portrait. Although chosen, she was sent to the “cold palace,” the place for neglected wives. After ten years, the emperor accidentally met her and the two became lovers. Some time later, the Xiongnu chieftain demanded a tribute princess from the Chinese. According to one version of the story, Mao Yanshou (who ﬂed China when the emperor discovered his lie) showed the Xiongnu khan a new painting of Wang Zhaojun in all her beauty. The Khan requested her for his tribute princess, but Wang Zhaojun killed herself before reaching the land of the Xiongnu. This is the version told here.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

319

Another version of the story has Wang Zhaojun living among the Xiongnu. As a result, there is peace between Chinese and Xiongnu for the next sixty years. Legend has it that Wang Zhaojun’s tomb, now a mound located in Hohhot, the capital of modern Inner Mongolia, remains forever green, a symbol of her love and longing for China. Autumn in the Palace of Han is a type of drama called zaju. Za means “mixed” or “miscellaneous”; ju means “play.” It was the most important type of Chinese drama from the thirteenth to seventeenth centuries CE. Zaju subject matter included history, crime stories, and romance. Zaju texts included poetry as well as singing. Music accompanied all performances. Ma Zhiyuan (c. 1250-1324 CE) is considered one of the greatest zaju playwrights. Seven of his plays survive. He came from what is today Beijing and probably held a minor government post. He was also a proliﬁc poet. Perhaps the following poem, called “Autumn Thoughts,” expresses some of the sadness of Wang Zhaojun’s story: Withered vines, old trees, twilight crows. Small bridge, ﬂowing water, people’s homes. Ancient road, the west wind, gaunt horse. The evening sun sinks westward. A man, broken-hearted, on a far horizon.3 UNIT 5 – U

Rationale: In combining discussion of (1) women in relation to China’s pre-modern foreign policy, and (2) analysis of the play’s literary devices, students will see how a major “war and peace” issue in Chinese history was invested with tragic romance and melancholy poetry. Time: One or two forty-minute sessions. This can be adjusted to meet the needs of the class. Instructional Resources: Excerpts from a Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 CE) play, Autumn in the Palace of Han,4 by Ma Zhiyuan. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: Go over the vocabulary and literary terms (p. 331); distribute copies of the map of the Han empire (Map E) for students’ reference. Divide the class up into groups. Ideally, each group should get one batch of questions. The questions are divided so as to give the groups a speciﬁc focus vis-à-vis the content of the play:

• • • •

Group A: The World of China and the World of the Frontier Group B: Emperor and Khan Group C: Wang Zhaojun Group D: The Tribute Princess

Individual questions are assigned to each group member. As they read, students will take notes in order to answer their questions and contribute to their group’s theme After the class ﬁnishes reading, each group discusses its answers with the whole class. Finally, the entire class pools its knowledge to discuss the following broad questions about the play:

3 4

320

Translation by Stephen Owen from An Anthology of Chinese Literature. New York: W.W. Norton, 1996, p. 740. This is a greatly shortened version of the translation by Donald Keene. In some passages, wording has been simplified. Material has also been added to preserve continuity. The entire play appears in: Cyril Birch (ed.). Anthology of Chinese Literature—from early times to the fourteenth century. New York: Grove Press, 1965, pp. 422-448.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

• • •

How does the play characterize the different worlds of nomad and Chinese? What are the character conﬂicts that develop in the play? Although she leads a privileged life, how does Zhaojun typify the inferior status of women in pre-modern China?

Whole Group Reflection: Is Wang Zhaojun a hero? Instructional Modification: Students can read the play for homework and perform it in class. The text can be taught with the assistance of a literature instructor. Application: Are there connections to be made between China’s way of maintaining frontier peace in pre-modern times and how other nations established peace with their neighbors? How do nations today, including China, establish peaceful relations with other nations? Excerpts from Autumn in the Palace of Han*

UNIT 5 – U

HAN GONG QIU The title of the play in Chinese: From left to right the characters are “Han,” “Palace,” and “Autumn”

From the Prologue

(The khan and his followers enter.) Khan (recites) : The autumn winds wander in the grass by my tent; a lonely ﬂute sounds through the moonlit skies. A million brave archers acknowledge me their khan, yet I affirm allegiance to the House of Han. I am the Khan . . . For many years I have lived in the grassy steppe, and alone rule the north. Hunting is my people’s livelihood, and conquest our business . . . I dispatched an envoy to offer tribute and to request that a princess be given me as my bride. As yet I do not know whether or not the Han emperor is willing to renew our treaty of alliance. Today the heavens are high, the air is clear. Chiefs—would not a round of hunting on the sandy banks be pleasant sport? Truly nomads own no land, no houses; bows and arrows are our only wealth. (Exits.) (Enter the emperor with a retinue of eunuchs and women.) Emperor (recites) : PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

321

China’s four hundred counties, the whole world, are mine. The borders long have been secured by solemn vow. At night I sleep in peace, no cares afflict me now. I am Emperor Yuan of the Han dynasty. . . . Ever since I ascended to the throne, the country in all its length and breadth has been at peace, not because of my own virtue, but thanks entirely to the civil and military officials on whose support I depend. (Exits.) From Act I

(The painter Mao Yanshou enters.) Mao (recites) : I’ll snatch my ﬁll of gold with both my hands, And fear no seas of blood nor royal commands. Alive, I only ask for wealth to spare; When dead, let men spit on me for all I care. UNIT 5 – U

(Mao brags about his mission to select girls for the palace. He has become rich because families bribe him to paint ﬂattering portraits. Only Wang Zhaojun’s family has no money and gives nothing. He disﬁgures her picture out of spite.) Mao: . . . I’ll disﬁgure the girl’s portrait a little, so that when she arrives in the capital she’ll certainly be sent to the palace of neglected ladies. I shall make her lead a lifetime of suffering . . . (Exits.) (As a result of Mao’s false portrait, the beautiful Wang Zhaojun is sent to the “cold palace,” the residence for neglected wives. The next scene takes place on the palace grounds. Enter Wang Zhaojun with two maids.) Wang Zhaojun (recites) : One day by royal command I came to this sad place. It seems ten years—I’ve yet to see my sovereign’s face. This lovely, lonely evening, who will join my song? My lute alone has brought me joy the whole night long. I am Wang Zhaojun. My father, the Elder Wang, has been a farmer all his life. When my mother was about to give me birth, she dreamt that moonlight entered her breast and made her fall to the ground. Soon afterwards I was born. When I grew to be eighteen, I was honored by being chosen to enter the women’s palace. I did not realize, when I could not give Mao Yanshou the money he demanded, that he would take his revenge by disﬁguring my portrait. (She plays and sings:) My carriage wheels crush the fallen ﬂowers, A girl in the moonlight puts down her ﬂute. Some palace lady I have never met Has aged with grief, and white now streaks her hair . . . (As she sings, the emperor enters with eunuchs carrying lanterns. He hears Wang Zhaojun’s music. They meet. He falls in love.)

322

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Emperor (sings): When I see your brows painted with mascara, Your hair swept up like piles of raven’s wings, Your waist as slim as swaying willow boughs, Your face as lovely as bright-colored clouds, I wonder which of all my palace halls Is worthy of you? . . . When I see such beauty before me, I wonder why you have never been favored by my visit. Zhaojun: At the time of the selection, the commissioner Mao Yanshou asked my father for money, but my family was so impoverished that we could raise none. Mao Yanshou took his revenge by disﬁguring the eyes in my portrait. That is why I was sent to the cold palace. (The emperor orders Mao Yanshou’s execution and bestows his favor on Wang Zhaojun.)

UNIT

A 1992 Chinese Coin Depicts Wang Zhaojun Holding a Pipa, a Traditional Stringed Instrument with A Pear-Shaped Wooden Body. The Small Figures on The Right Symbolize Her Life As An Elegant Court Lady. The Camel and The Sheep on The Left Stand for Her New Life among The Nomads.

5 – U

(Source: Courtesy of Pacific Atlantic Coin Company) http://www.pacoin.com/coins/modernissue/china/histfigures/set9/1992nineth.html

From Act II

(The Khan enters with his followers.) Khan: . . . Recently I sent envoys to offer my allegiance to the Han and to ask in return for a Han princess. The Chinese emperor refused, claiming that the princesses of his palace are still too young for marriage. I am most annoyed . . . I intend to raise troops and invade the Han lands to the south. But I fear to destroy the peace of several years’ standing. I shall examine conditions and act accordingly. PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

323

(Mao Yanshou enters. He has ﬂed China. He shows the khan a true portrait of Wang Zhaojun so that the khan will demand her from the Chinese as a tribute princess.) Khan: Is it possible that the world contains such a woman? My wishes would all be fulﬁlled if I could have her for my queen. I shall dispatch an official and some retainers with a letter to the Chinese emperor asking for Wang Zhaojun. In exchange for the princess, I shall offer peace between our two nations. If the emperor refuses, I shall invade his domains without delay, and he will not ﬁnd it easy to defend his rivers and mountains. Meanwhile I and my soldiers will make a foray within the Han borders, pretending it is for a hunt, and when we see our chance, we shall strike. (Exits.) (The emperor’s palace, a month after he’s fallen in love with Wang Zhaojun. The emperor and Zhaojun are together. Enter the prime minister and a eunuch.) Minister:

UNIT

I wish to report to your majesty that the Khan of the northern barbarians has sent an envoy here to say that Mao Yanshou presented him with a portrait of Lady Zhaojun. The Khan demands her in marriage as requisite for making peace and ending hostilities. If his demand is refused, he will march south with great numbers of men, and you will not be able to defend your territories.

5 – U

Zhaojun: I have been favored by your majesty’s great kindness. Now it is my turn to repay you by my death. I am willing to be married to the barbarian. If, because of my sacriﬁce, swords are not raised, I shall enjoy a good name in the histories to come. But how can I give up the love I shared with you? Emperor (sings): Today she will be wedded to the khan You must be satisﬁed, my ministers! The Chinese princess has a country still, Yet nowhere can she turn. She must go forth Where the yellow clouds rise not from hills of green. Reduced to distant gazing, our eyes will strain To sight a lonely goose cross the autumn sky: This year, my fate decreed I’d suffer grief, And Zhaojun suffering and wasting away with sorrow. Her crown of kingﬁsher feathers, her sash, All her Chinese clothes she must now exchange For brocade hoods and beaded robes of fur. (He orders his minister to turn her over to the khan’s envoy.)

324

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

The Mongolian Steppe

(Source: Photograph courtesy of Daniel C. Waugh, 2004)

From Act III UNIT

(By the bridge that leads to the road north. Enter the khan’s envoy escorting Wang Zhaojun.)

5 – U

Zhaojun: . . . I have no choice. I have been sent across the frontier to marry the nomad khan. The winds and frost are cruel in the northern lands. How shall I endure them? Many tales are told from ancient times of beautiful women who have suffered unhappy fates. But I must not resent the sorrows my beauty has brought me. (Enter the emperor with officials.) Emperor (sings): Alas, how heavy is this separation! I know how anxious you must be to leave. My heart will go before her to the north; When I return, I’ll look for her in dreams. Oh, never say that great men soon forget. Zhaojun (recites) : Today I lead a Chinese palace life, Tomorrow I shall be a nomad’s wife. How could I wear your gifts of former days To ﬂaunt my charms and win another’s praise? Emperor (sings): Caw! Caw! The cries of southward-ﬂying geese: But all that ﬁlls my eyes is sheep and cattle The sound I heard was but the creaking wheels Of the felt-covered cart bearing its load Of sorrow up the slopes of northern hills. (Exits.) PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

325

(Zhaojun lays aside her Chinese court robes and they part. The scene changes to a spot by the Amur River, boundary between the khan’s territory and China. The khan has come to escort Zhaojun north. Zhaojun addresses the khan.) Zhaojun: Will your highness give me a cup of wine that I may pour an offering while facing the south, and take a last leave of China before my long journey? Mighty emperor of the Han! Now is this life ended. I await you in the next. (Zhaojun pours the wine out on the ground and then throws herself into the river. The khan tries to save her, but fails.) Khan (in tears): Alas, alas. Zhaojun was so unwilling to enter my domains that she threw herself into the river and died. Let her be buried, then, on the bank of this river at a place we shall call the Green Mound. She whom I thought to marry is dead. In vain did I create enmity between myself and the Han . . . I shall resume our traditional alliance with the Emperor of Han, and remain forever to him as nephew to uncle. All may have proved for the best. (Exits.) UNIT 5 – U

(The khan sends Mao Yanshou back to China.) From Act IV

(The emperor awakes after dreaming that Zhaojun has visited him.) Emperor (sings): Listen—a wild goose, calling twice or thrice At Zhaojun’s empty palace. How could it know Another, lonelier than she, waits here? Probably it is old and strengthless now; And must be hungry, bones and feathers light, It would turn back, but fears for southern nets; It would go forward, but dreads the nomad bows. Its mournful notes are like a voice that tells Of Zhaojuns’s longing for the Lord of Han: Sad as the dirges for a fallen hero . . . (Enter a minister. He tells the emperor that Mao Yanshou has been brought back in chains and that Wang Zhaojun is dead. The emperor orders Mao’s execution.) Emperor (recites) : Leaves fell in the courtyard as the wild goose cried above, bringing to my lonely pillow dreams and thoughts of love . . .

326

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Student Handout: Questions

GROUP A: THE WORLD OF CHINA AND THE WORLD OF THE FRONTIER

1. How does the use of nature in the Khan’s prologue speech make you feel about his frontier kingdom? What does the sound of the flute say about the frontier landscape?

2. What do we learn about the lifestyle of the nomads? What is the relationship between nomads and Chinese?

UNIT

3. According to the minister, what are the nomad’s demands?

5 – U

4. How does the emperor’s speech use clothing to characterize the difference between China and the nomads?

5. What role does music have in the play? Compare the roles of the flute and Wang Zhaojun’s lute: What different worlds do they represent?

6. What do wild geese symbolize in the play?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

327

GROUP B: EMPEROR AND KHAN

1. How is the Khan characterized? What is his role as Khan?

2. What is the “solemn vow” of the emperor’s prologue speech?

UNIT

3. Compare the emperor’s first speech with the Khan’s. How does Emperor Yuan’s domain differ from that of the Khan? How does the Khan’s lifestyle differ from the emperor’s?

5 – U

4. How does Emperor Yuan characterize his job as emperor? How does he account for the relative peace on the frontier?

5. How does Mao Yanshou manipulate the Khan in order to get revenge? Why is the Khan annoyed at the beginning of Act II?

328

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

GROUP C: WANG ZHAOJUN

1. What feelings does Wang Zhaojun have about her position at court?

2. How do the “fallen flowers” and the “palace lady” in Wang Zhaojun’s Act I song describe her own situation?

3. How does the emperor react to Wang Zhaojun when he first sees her? Are his reactions just physical?

UNIT 5 – U

4. In his Act I song, what images does the emperor use to describe Wang Zhaojun’s beauty?

5. In Act II, what is the Khan’s reaction on seeing Wang Zhaojun’s portrait?

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

329

GROUP D: THE TRIBUTE PRINCESS

1. Is Wang Zhaojun’s response to the Khan’s request heroic? How will her life change when she leaves court?

2. How does Wang Zhaojun feel about leaving the palace?

UNIT

3. How does the emperor respond to her departure? Who is more level-headed in this situation, the emperor or Wang Zhaojun?

5 – U

4. In Act II, Wang Zhaojun lays aside her court robes. What does this symbolize?

5. What affect does Wang Zhaojun’s death have on the Khan? On his relations with China?

330

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Vocabulary Frontier: A region that forms the border between settled and unsettled territory. Khan: A chieftain or person of rank. Steppe: Dry, almost treeless grasslands that support nomadic tribes and their herds. Tribute: Payment by the ruler of one nation to another, as protection against attack or in acknowledgment of inferior status.

Glossary of Literary Terms5 Allegory: A figurative work in which a surface narrative carries a secondary, symbolic or metaphorical meaning. Characterization: The process by which an author creates vivid, believable characters in a work of art. This may be done in a variety of ways, including (1) direct description of the character by the narrator; (2) the direct presentation of the speech, thoughts, or actions of the character; and (3) the responses of other characters to the character. Conflict: The conflict in a work of fiction is the issue to be resolved in the story. It usually occurs between two characters, the protagonist and the antagonist, or between the protagonist and society or the protagonist and himself or herself.

UNIT 5 – U

Figurative language: A technique in writing in which the author temporarily interrupts the order, construction, or meaning of the writing for a particular effect. Figurative language is the opposite of literal language, in which every word is truthful, accurate, and free of exaggeration or embellishment. Foreshadowing: A device used in literature to create expectation or to set up an explanation of later developments. Genre: A category of literary work. In critical theory, genre may refer to both the content of a given work—tragedy, comedy, pastoral—and to its form, such as poetry, novel, or drama. Metaphor: A figure of speech that expresses an idea through the image of another object. Metaphors suggest the essence of the first object by identifying it with certain qualities of the second object. For example, “Love is a singing bird.” Plot: In literary criticism, this term refers to the pattern of events in a narrative or drama. In its simplest sense, the plot guides the author in composing the work and helps the reader follow the work. Prologue: An introductory section of a literary work. It often contains information establishing the situation of the characters or presents information about the setting, time period, or action. Setting: The time, place, and culture in which the action of a narrative takes place. Symbol: Something that on the surface is its literal self but which also has another meaning, or even several meanings. For example, a sword may be a sword and also symbolize justice. Theme: The main point of a work of literature.

Definitions from Gale Publishing’s A Glossary of Literary Terms http://www.galegroup.com/free_resources/glossary/

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

331

Unit V

TWO MOGAO CAVE PAINTINGS AND TWO JATAKA TALES

Essential Question: How are paintings and stories similar and different in the ways they narrate events and express ideas? Learning Experience: In reading two Jataka tales and studying the Mogao cave paintings that illustrate them, students will be able to understand how narrative can be translated from one artistic medium to another. They will also compare and contrast two Jataka tales and their respective paintings in terms of themes and narrative techniques.

As part of this, students will answer the following questions: How do the paintings bring to life the stories and themes of the Jataka Tales? How do the Jataka tales depicted on the wall paintings reﬂect Buddhist values? Anticipatory Set: Is it true that a “picture is worth a thousand words”? How do pictures differ from words, and words from pictures, as media for expressing ideas and feelings? Context: The word “Jataka” comes from the Sanskrit root “jan,” meaning “to be born.” The 550 Jataka Tales are believed to be about the former lives of the Buddha. Wherever Buddhism set down roots, the Jataka tales were recited, read, and used as material for theatre and the visual arts. UNIT 5 – V

Dunhuang is an old oasis city in modern-day Gansu province that was brought under Chinese control during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE). It was the gateway to what the Chinese referred to as the “Western Regions” (Central Asia), and the place where the two branches of the Silk Roads met before entering China proper (see Maps A and Map D as well as the Color Map). Dunhuang was one of the main entry points for Buddhism as it established itself in China during the ﬁrst centuries of the Common Era. The Mogao caves (in Chinese, “Mogao” means “Peerless” or “None Loftier”) are also called the “Caves of the Thousand Buddhas.” They were begun in 366 CE and created in homage to the Buddha. Eventually, Buddhist monk-painters covered over 46,000 square feet of space with murals depicting Buddhist legends and religious doctrines. Many of the murals are Chinese versions of the Jataka tales.

LESSON 1 THE DEER OF NINE COLORS The Deer of Nine Colors can be broken down into the following basic elements:

332

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

• The deer saves a man named Tiao Da from drowning and then asks him not to reveal his hiding place. • In the imperial palace, a concubine complains to the king that she yearns for the skin of the Deer of Nine Colors to make herself a cloak. • The king promises a reward to the person who can find such an animal.

• Hoping to get the reward, Tiao Da tells the king where the deer is to be found. • When the king and his hunting party find the deer, the animal asks the king how he discovered his hiding place. The king names Tiao Da. • The deer tells the king of Tiao Da’s betrayal.

• The king is so upset that he frees the deer and banishes Tiao Da.

The painting depicts ﬁve parts of the story, but doesn’t rely on the chronological sequence of the Jataka narrative. The king, out hunting and encountering the deer, is at the center; the other key incidents ﬂank it on the left and right:

• Panel 1 (from the left): The deer rescues Tiao Da. • Panel 1: The Deer tells Tiao Da not to reveal his hiding place. • Panel 2: The king goes to hunt the deer.

UNIT 5 – V

• Panel 3: Tiao Da reveals the location of the deer. • Panel 4: Tiao Da is banished.

Why is the story painted like this? Why is the king hunting at the center? Perhaps it’s because the king’s releasing the deer is an example of compassion for living things: not taking life is one of the central precepts of Buddhism. The ﬂanking incidents show the inevitable results of bad behavior: on the left, Tiao Da is saved and makes a promise to his rescuer; on the right, he betrays the deer and, because of this, is banished. Rationale: Students will read the Jataka tale entitled The Deer of Nine Colors. Through class discussion they will determine the Buddhist values emphasized by the plot. They will also attempt to identify the same story from one of the Mogao cave paintings. Time: Two forty-minute sessions. Instructional Resources: Handout: “About Buddhism”; reproduction of Mogao painting; text of Jataka tale. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

333

Procedure: Before reading the tale and studying the painting, students should read the brief handout, “About Buddhism.”

In this lesson, students will read a characteristic Jataka tale, The Deer of Nine Colors. After reading it aloud in class, they will spend a few minutes responding to it in their journals, noting the characters, the plot, and the theme of the story. They will also identify Buddhist values as expressed in the story and the painting. The teacher will write these on the board. This lesson enables students to see how parables—short narratives that depict moral or religious ideas—teach important values. Later, students will see how artists interpreted the same story in the Mogao cave wall paintings. They will examine the painting entitled “Jataka of the Deer King” and discuss the following two questions in cooperative learning groups: 1. What parts of the story are depicted in the painting? 2. In what sequence does the painting show the events described in the story? Whole Group Reflection: Responses to the above questions will be used to make notes on the blackboard. This debrieﬁng will focus on how narration in a painting can reﬂect the intentions of a written story. Instructional Modification: Each step of the lesson can be written on the board in summary or graphic form. Copies of the story, as well as reproductions of the painting, can be handed out for further study. Application: Students will draw their own version of the Jataka tale as a cartoon panel.

UNIT

LESSON 2

5 – V

THE HAWK, THE DOVE, AND KING SIVI The Hawk, the Dove, and King Sivi emphasizes the Buddhist vow to never take the life of a living creature. The story can be broken down into the following basic elements:

• The king is relaxing outside his pavilion.

• Suddenly, a dove flies to him, seeking protection from an eagle swooping down.

• The king shelters the dove under his arm.

• The hawk demands that the king let the dove go.

• The king finds himself in a dilemma, since he has pledged never to kill a living creature.

334

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

• The king is relaxing outside his pavilion. • To let the hawk kill the dove would make him responsible for its death; not to release the dove would force the hawk to starve. • The only solution is to offer the hawk some of his own flesh. • When he starts to cut his flesh, the earth trembles, flowers fall from the sky, and both birds disappear. • The birds, we discover, are two gods who had come to test King Sivi’s Buddhist piety.

The painting depicts only the climax of the story—King Sivi cutting his ﬂesh. The painter chooses an image of self-sacriﬁce. This idea is also seen in other Jataka stories where the Buddha himself, in a past life, sacriﬁces himself to a starving mother tiger so she can feed her cubs. Rationale: With the teacher’s guidance, students will observe how the Jataka tale The Deer of Nine Colors is depicted in what might be called a “satellite style”—a central image ﬂanked by subordinate images. (Students have already drawn cartoon panels to illustrate the written story, which they can compare to the Mogao painting.)

In cooperative groups, the students will read aloud the second story and discuss its plot and themes. They will study the painting representing the story of King Sivi and discuss its narrative elements, comparing what might be called its “climax style” style with the “satellite style” found in the painting of the Deer of Nine Colors. UNIT

Another way to compare narrative styles in these works of art is to have the students dramatize “emotional snapshots” of the highlights of each story.

5 – V

Time: Three forty-minute sessions. Instructional Resources: Handout: “About Buddhism”; Jataka text and reproduction of Mogao painting. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: Before reading the tale and studying the painting, students should read the brief handout, “About Buddhism.”

The lesson will start with a review of the plot of The Deer of Nine Colors along with a discussion of the Buddhist values intrinsic to the story’s theme. After studying the painting of this story, they should identify the “satellite style” that depicts four highpoints of the narrative. The class then breaks up into cooperative learning groups of four. Each group will read The Hawk, the Dove, and King Sivi, then discuss the plot and its Buddhist themes. The teacher will then show the class the cave painting entitled “The Jataka of King Sivi,” asking students to record in their journals the part of the story they recognize in the picture. They will record this information into their journals.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

335

Volunteers will discuss their observations, noting differences in the styles of narration between the two paintings. The teacher then identiﬁes the narrative style of “King Sivi” as the “climax style.” The next day’s lesson will attempt to reinforce student understanding of the two narrative styles. Divided into cooperative learning groups, students will rehearse dramatizing the stories as “emotional snapshots.” Each group will plan its own “tableau vivant,” depicting one of the stories as a series of four highlights. Students in each group will depict the four highlights, while a narrator tells the story. This will be followed by one emotional snapshot of the story as told in the climax style and one in the satellite style. Whole Group Reflection: The third day of the lesson will consist of each group’s performance. An evaluation of the success of each group in depicting the plots and narrative style of each story will follow the performance. Instructional Modifications: Students can take familiar Western fairy tales and compare how the narrative elements of these stories could be represented using three visual styles: conﬂicting, satellite, and the styles they see in comic strips and comic books. (Perhaps some students, fans of contemporary comics or Japanese manga, will be able to point out narrative techniques more daring than these ancient paintings!)

Students may need further discussion in order to deﬁne narrative terms such as “development,” “climax,” etc. Application: Depict a familiar Western fairy tale in a drawing in two ways: the conﬂict and satellite styles.

UNIT 5 – V

336

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Student Handout:

ABOUT BUDDHISM According to Buddhism, for a man to be perfect there are two qualities he should develop equally: compassion on one side, and wisdom on the other. Here compassion represents love, charity, kindness, tolerance, and such noble qualities on the emotional side . . . while wisdom would stand for the intellectual side or qualities of the mind (Rahula 1959: 46). . . . according to the unbroken age-old tradition in Buddhist countries, one is considered a Buddhist if one takes the Buddha, the Dharma (the Teaching) and the Sangha (the Order of Monks) . . . as one’s refuges, and undertakes to observe the Five Precepts—the minimum moral obligations of a lay Buddhist—(1) not to destroy life, (2) not to steal, (3) not to commit adultery, (4) not to tell lies, (5) not to take intoxicating drinks (Rahula 1959: 80).

LESSON 1A: PAINTING OF THE JATAKA OF THE DEER KING (CAVE 257)* The mural of the Jataka of the Deer King is a single wall painting. The reproductions are divided as follows, from left to right:

(1)

(2) UNIT 5 – V

(Source: Cultural Relics Publishing House, Dunhuang Institute for Cultural Relics, PRC)

(3)

(4)

(Source: Cultural Relics Publishing House, Dunhuang Institute for Cultural Relics, PRC)

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

337

LESSON 1B: JATAKA TALE—THE DEER OF NINE COLORS* Long ago there lived a deity that took the form of a deer. He was a beautiful creature with a sparkling coat of nine different colors and majestic antlers that shone bright white, glittering and translucent like jade. He was known as the Deer of Nine Colors. One day, as the deer browsed the sweet grasses along the riverbank, he suddenly heard desperate cries coming from the river. “Help! Help! Mountain god, tree god, dragon god, the gods in heaven, please come to my rescue!” The deer raised his head and saw a man clutching a log as he was swept downstream by the current. The deer jumped into the river and swam to the man, who clung to the deer’s back as they struggled out of the river onto the safety of the riverbank. Tiao Da was very grateful and got down on his knees before the deer. “You have saved my life and I am your willing servant until the day I die,” he said. “No,” replied the deer kindly, “it is my pleasure to help people. Go back to your home and recover. I have only one request of you. Do no tell anyone that you have met me here by the river. Back at the palace, one night the imperial concubine dreamed of a deer with nine colors. When she awoke the next morning, her eyes glittered with greed. If she had a cloak made of a deerskin of nine colors, she would be the most noble royal concubine of all. But no such coat of nine colors was to be had. The royal concubine became so obsessed by her desire for the cloak and fretted so much that she made herself deathly ill. When the king heard that his royal concubine was dying, he went to inquire about the source of her illness. The imperial concubine told the king about her dream and urgently implored him to ﬁnd her the deer with a nine-color coat, for only this would restore her health. The king agreed, promising to give her anything in the world that she desired if it would make her well again. UNIT 5 – V

And so imperial notices were posted throughout the land, announcing that anyone who could capture the Deer of Nine Colors would be given golden bowls and half the kingdom as a reward. No one knew where to ﬁnd the deer. No one, that is, except Tiao Da. When he saw the imperial notice he ripped it down and rushed to the palace to see the king. “So,” the excited king said, “you know where to ﬁnd the deer?” “I not only know where to ﬁnd him,” Tiao Da bragged, “I have even seen and spoken to him.” The man, who was named Tiao Da, led the king and his soldiers to the Henghe River, where they found the deer lying in the grass beside the water. The king’s soldiers surrounded the deer, but just as they were about to shoot their arrows, the deer dashed over to the king. “I have one request before you kill me,” he said to the king. “Who was it that told you that I was here?” “It was he,” the king responded, pointing his ﬁnger at Tiao Da. The deer angrily denounced Tiao Da and related to the king how he had saved Tiao Da from drowning in the river. Raising his voice, the deer addressed the king, “Your Majesty, to have such a base person in your country shames you. He promised never to reveal my whereabouts to anyone, but he broke his promise. He is a mean-spirited person who repays kindness with enmity. That is all; I am ready now to be killed.” The king was moved by the deer’s story and so embarrassed by the behavior of his subject that he got down from his horse and apologized to the deer. Turning to Tiao Da, he said, “You are despicable. Be gone!” From that time on, the king proclaimed that all the people in his kingdom would protect all deer, especially the Deer of Nine Colors (Li 1998: 99-101).

338

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

LESSON 2A: MOGAO PAINTING OF THE HAWK, THE DOVE, AND KING SIVI (CAVE 254)*

(Source: Cultural Relics Publishing House, Dunhuang Institute for Cultural Relics, PRC)

LESSON 2B: JATAKA TALE—THE HAWK, THE DOVE AND KING SIVI* The rich State of Shiei was picturesque and populated by a happy people who were ruled by a humane and fair-minded king. According to the Xian Yu Scriptures, there once were two gods who magically transformed themselves into birds; the god Di sh*tian became an eagle, and the god Cishou Jiemo became a dove. One day, while the king of Sivi was relaxing outside a pavilion, he saw a dove wheeling and turning as it tried to evade a hunting eagle. The king waved to the dove, whereupon the bird ﬂew to him and nestled in his armpit for protection. The eagle quickly swooped down and demanded that the king release the dove. “I am very hungry,” said the eagle ferociously, “and you have my prey. Release it to me.”

UNIT 5 – V

“Go somewhere else and try to ﬁnd some meat,” the king pleaded. “No,” the eagle screamed, “I haven’t had any food for days. You who are among the well-fed know little of how the starving suffer. Release the dove and let me eat my ﬁll of fresh meat!” the eagle demanded again. Long ago, the king had made a pledge never to cause harm to any living thing for as long as he lived. Now he was faced with a terrible dilemma: If he didn’t release the dove to the eagle, the eagle would surely die of starvation. But if he released the dove to save the eagle, he would be responsible for causing the dove’s death. What could he do? There was only one thing he could do to save the lives of both birds; the king offered his own ﬂesh to the eagle. The eagle accepted the king’s offer of sustenance with the condition that the amount of ﬂesh he received from the king be equal to that of the dove. So the king called his officials in charge of imperial weights and measures to attend him. The official arrived wearing his felt hat and high boots and set up his scales, which were made of a beam, pivoted in the middle, with a pan suspended on chains at either end. The king gently placed the dove on one pan of the scale and then his left foot on his right knee so that the ﬂesh of his thigh was exposed to the knife edge of the eagle’s beak. As the fearsome eagle tore at the king’s ﬂesh, the gods appeared in the sky. Some of the gods wept for the king, others praised his actions, while still others prayed to Buddha. The king was calm and sat absolutely still. Suddenly the earth began to shake and colorful ﬂowers fell from the heavens; the eagle and the dove disappeared. Miraculously, the king’s ﬂesh became whole again. The gods Di sh*tian and Cishou Jiemo had transformed themselves into the eagle and the dove to test the king’s faith. The king had proved himself a pious man and the gods rejoiced with him (Li 1998:153-155).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

339

Unit W

THE ARTS TRAVEL THE SILK ROADS

Essential Question: How do art objects and design motifs1 act as vehicles of cultural diffusion? Learning Experience: Students will look at three groups of artifacts representing cross-cultural exchange along the Silk Roads: (A) Buddhist Religious Objects; (B) Exotic and Luxurious Things; (C) Symbols of Power and Prestige: The Phoenix and the Dragon. By studying them, they will learn to think critically about art as an agent of cultural diffusion; by closely “reading” these objects, they will also become more visually literate. Anticipatory Set: Portable objects were one way that art styles and motifs were transported across Eurasia from one society to another. How many things can you think of that have traveled from one culture to another? What effect does modern technology—air travel, television, and the computer, for instance—have on this kind of cultural diffusion? Context: This unit looks at three groups of artifacts that served as vehicles for cultural exchange along the Silk Roads:

• • •

Objects related to religious practice—Buddhists and the faithful of other religions carried illustrated texts, religious images, and ritual objects. Exotic luxuries—merchants traded in metalwork, glassware, textiles, and ceramics over long distances. The small size, light weight, and high value of such things made them ideal trade goods. Symbols of royalty—Emperors and kings reserved the right to use certain symbols and motifs to reﬂect their power and prestige.

Cultural diffusion via the visual arts also involved the movement of craftspeople rather than objects. Sometimes this was voluntary and sometimes whole populations of artisans were resettled by force. This was especially true when the Mongols ruled Eurasia in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Moving to distant places, they brought with them new styles, design motifs, and techniques.

UNIT

Rationale: In looking at a group of objects both closely, as “art-for-art’s-sake,” and contextually, as things produced at speciﬁc times and in speciﬁc places, students will learn about the kind of art objects that traveled the Silk Roads and played a role in cultural diffusion.

5 – W

Time: Two forty-minute sessions. Instructional Resources: Three groups of images with documents; access to the Internet. Some documents are primary sources and some are secondary materials selected from various books and articles. Primary sources are marked with an asterisk. *

Procedure: This unit consists of two activities.

•

340

The ﬁrst activity consists of two Buddhist objects: (1) The colossal Buddha at Bamiyan; (2) A sheet of votive images. Students will look at the objects, read the documents, and answer the questions.

Underlined terms appear in the glossary at the end of this unit.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

The whole class provides answers to the questions, the teacher writing down them on the blackboard. The class also attempts a provisional answer to the essential question: How do art objects and design motifs act as vehicles of cultural diffusion? Also, how might religious art differ from secular art in this respect? •

The class is then divided into base groups. One group receives three objects—two from Iran and one from Turkey); the other receives three objects made in China: Base Groups

Group 1: Iran/Turkey: 3. Sasanian Ewer 6. Phoenix Tile 8. Drawing of a Dragon

Group 2: China: 4. Phoenix-headed Ewer 5. Jade Phoenix Ornament 7. Jar With a Painted Dragon

Each student in the group will specialize in one object. Students read the documents and then complete the Artifact Analysis Worksheet (p. 349). Group members can discuss the objects among themselves in order to complete the worksheets. (It might also be necessary to explain that objects 3-8 are generic examples, that is to say, although they represent cultural exchange, the objects aren’t related one-to-one. For instance, the Sasanian Ewer (3) isn’t the object that directly caused the Chinese potter to produce (4), the Phoenix-headed ewer.)

UNIT 5 – W

After completing this task, new groups are formed. These are made up of “experts” on two objects. The objects are paired according to their role in East-to-West or West-to-East cultural exchange:

Group 1 From the West:

To the East:

3. Sasanian Ewer

4. Phoenix-headed Ewer

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

341

Group 2 From the West:

To the East:

5. Jade Phoenix Ornament

6. Phoenix Tile

Group 3 From the West:

To the East:

7. Jar With a Painted Dragon

8. Drawing of a Dragon

The groups then ﬁll out the Cultural Diffusion Worksheet (p. 349). The answers on both worksheets are to be used to create a one-page catalogue entry on their object for homework. Whole Group Reflection: The class has (1) analyzed a group of religious objects, and (2) a group of luxury goods, all part of pre-modern cultural exchange along the Silk Roads. After studying the artifacts and completing the worksheets, the class can answer the essential question: How do art objects and design motifs act as vehicles of cultural diffusion?

They should further consider why these objects act as vehicles of cultural exchange by comparing the two groups. How does the spread of religious objects and motifs from one culture to another differ from luxury goods, things people acquire because they are exotic, expensive, and fashionable? Instructional Modification: Students can attach brief essays to their catalogue entries based on internet research. Application: What modern day objects might be compared to the objects studied in this unit?

UNIT 5 – W

342

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

A. BUDDHIST OBJECTS 1. The Colossal Buddha at Bamiyan, Central Afghanistan. 4th-5th centuries CE. Destroyed by the Taliban in March 2001

Although the colossal Buddha at Bamiyan (175 ft. tall) isn’t a portable object, it played an important role in the diffusion of the Buddha image throughout East Asia:

(Source: Conway Library, Courtauld Institute of Art) http://www.courtauld.ac.uk/sub_index/photographic/conway/bamiyan _buddahs/bamiyan-subs/bamiyan_detail_01.html

The Bamiyan Buddha, because of its impact on the traveler, was of great importance, for its particular iconography and style were transported both in small-scale “souvenir” objects taken back to China and in the minds of those who saw it . . . the rhythmic geometry of the drapery . . . provided a prototype for numerous images made in China and Japan on both a small and a large scale (Lee 1973: 133).

In the seventh century, the Chinese monk Xuanzang made the long and dangerous trip to India to study, collect Buddhist scriptures, and visit holy sites connected with the life of the Buddha. On his way, he visited Bamiyan in what is now Afghanistan. He described the colossal Buddha in the following words. To the northeast of the royal city there is a mountain, on the side of which is placed the stone ﬁgure of Buddha standing, in height one hundred or one hundred and ﬁfty feet. Its golden colors sparkle on every side and its precious ornaments dazzle the eyes with their brightness (Wriggins 1996: 44)). The Taliban destroyed the Bamiyan colossal Buddha in 2001, deeming the image as “offensive to Islam” http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/central/03/12/afghan.buddha.02/ 1. How has the statue changed since Xuanzang’s day?

2. How can it contribute to cultural diffusion even though it can’t move?

UNIT 5 – W

To learn more about the Bamiyan Buddha, see: http://www.photogrammetry.ethz.ch/research/bamiyan/ http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/afghanistan/bamiyanindex.htm

For a vivid computer-generated model of the statue, see: http://www.photogrammetry.ethz.ch/research/bamiyan/niches/index.html

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

343

A. BUDDHIST OBJECTS (continued from the previous page.)

2. Votive Images of a Bodhisattva*

The Bodhisattva is central to Mahayana Buddhist belief. “Mahayana” (“Great Vehicle”) Buddhism developed in India during the ﬁrst centuries of the Common Era and later set down roots in China, Korea, Japan, Mongolia, and Tibet. Bodhisattvas (“bodhi” is Sanskrit for “wisdom,” “sattva” is “being”) are beings with god-like qualities that remain in the world to help all humankind achieve enlightenment. While the Buddha is depicted as wearing the simple robes of a monk, by contrast, Bodhisattvas wear worldly robes. These are said to symbolize their connection to the material world.

Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), 800-899 CE From Dunhuang, Ink on Paper 7 in. high, 4 in. wide British Museum

This doctrine of universal salvation is central to Mahayana Buddhism’s appeal: It was no coincidence that Buddhism became part of Chinese culture during a particularly violent and unsettled historical period. Between the fall of the Han dynasty in 220 and reuniﬁcation under the Sui in 589, China was politically divided and plagued by warfare, famine, and disease.2

What is a votive object? “Votive” means “to express a vow or a wish.” Votive objects are offered to gods or saints as an expression of thanks or to ask for some favor or blessing. They are a common part of religious life in many cultures, past and present. These images were made with a wooden stamp. By stamping repeated impressions of the Bodhisattva, the owner demonstrates his religious devotion. In addition, the very process of stamping was a devotional act whereby the doer accumulated merit. Sheets of paper ﬁlled with rows of impressions were pasted together to make longer scrolls and often stored within a shrine. The portability of such stamps meant they could travel and transmit image types and motifs. UNIT 5 – W

This piece is from Dunhuang, an important center of Buddhism. The part of the Silk Roads going west out of China split near Dunhuang to go around the Taklamakan desert.

1. Can you name votive objects used by the faithful of other religions?

2. How does an object like this contribute to cultural diffusion?

344

The Daoist religion, China’s indigenous faith, also became widespread during the same period.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

B. THE EXOTIC AND THE LUXURIOUS* “Exotic” means something that either comes from a foreign place or catches your attention because it’s colorful and unusual. Sassanian silver delighted affluent Chinese. Chinese potters and metalworkers copied the shapes and decorative motifs used on these luxury imports. Figure 3 is a silver ewer (pitcher) from Sasanian Iran. 3. Sasanian Ewer

Iran, Sasanian, 5-7th century Silver 14 in. high Cleveland Museum of Art

The Sasanian empire (224-651) was “one of the most powerful and belligerent regimes ever to control the Iranian plateau and eastern part of the Fertile Crescent . . .”(Farmer 1986: 180). Sasanian textiles and silver were imported all over Asia. In China, weavers and silversmiths adopted Sasanian vessel shapes and decoration. The imperial court in Japan also treasured Sasanian silver, textiles, and glassware.

(Source: Cleveland Museum of Art) http://www.clemusart.com/explore/work.asp? searchText=ewer&recNo=0&tab=2&display

4. Phoenix-headed Ewer

China, Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) Late 7th-first half 8th century 13 in. high Earthenware with Three-color Glaze Metropolitan Museum of Art (Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Stanley Herzman, in memory of Adele Herzman, 1991 [1991.253.4] Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

The Tang dynasty was one of the most brilliant periods in Chinese history. Its capital at Chang’an was host to Arabs, Iranians, Indians, Turks, Syrians, and Tibetans, as well as Koreans and Japanese. Iranian merchants also lived and worked in China’s southeastern seaports. The Silk Roads brought luxury goods from western Asia, particularly Iran, into China. . . . the period from the ﬁfth century CE [onward] was one of the principal times in Chinese history when . . . the decorative arts, especially utensils for eating and drinking, were radically altered in shape, texture and decoration by the introduction of foreign customs and motifs (Rawson 1992: 265).

UNIT 5 – W

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tang/ho_1991.253.4.htm

Although these two objects are made of different materials, both have a characteristic gently curving handle and body. The decoration on the Chinese ewer also includes a mounted archer turning around in the saddle to shoot.3 This was the “Parthian shot,” famous in the ancient world. The Parthians (247 BCE-224 CE) were the Iranian dynasty that preceded the Sasanians.

This can be seen better on the Metropolitan’s website—zoom in by clicking on the enlarged image http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tang/hod_1991.253.4.htm.

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

345

C. SYMBOLS OF POWER AND PRESTIGE: THE PHOENIX AND THE DRAGON* The phoenix and dragon are two of the most important Chinese mythological animals. Both symbolize the power of the Chinese emperor as “Son of Heaven.” The phoenix is also associated with the empress. In addition, dragon and phoenix are connected with nature and the seasons. The dragon with spring, when Heaven causes things to grow; the phoenix with summer, when crops ripen. 5. Phoenix Ornament

China, Western Han (206 BCE - 24 CE) Jade Zacke Auktionen & Galerie AG (Source: Image is courtesy of http://www.collectorsheaven.at) http://www.zacke.at/artikel/AUNF2D014.jpg

The bird called “phoenix” in the West is called fenghuang in Chinese. Figure 5 is an ornament made of white jade, perhaps meant to be attached to a person’s clothes or belt. One of the things distinguishing the phoenix is its beautiful ﬂowing tail. Notice how carefully it’s depicted in both the tiny jade (Figure 5) and the colorful tile (Figure 6, below). 6. Phoenix Tile

UNIT

Ilkhanid, c. 1270-80 Islamic, probably made in Kashan, Iran Painted Ceramic Metropolitan Museum of Art

5 – W

This Iranian phoenix tile was made in Mongol-ruled Persia and believed to have come from an imperial palace. As a result of the thirteenth century Mongol conquests, Iranian craftsmen took up Chinese motifs such as the phoenix and the dragon. In Persia, as in China, they were symbols of power and prestige. An important Iranian mythological animal was called the senmurv, a combination of dog, lion, and dragon. As cultural and artistic exchange between Iran and China expanded, the senmurv was replaced with the Chinese image of the phoenix. 346

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Unlike the destructive European dragon, the Chinese dragon represents creation and change. It is a symbol of the electrically charged, dynamic . . . force that manifests itself in the thunderstorm. In winter this energy withdraws into the earth; in the early summer it becomes active again, appearing in the sky as thunder and lightning. As a result the creative forces on earth began to stir again (Wilhelm 1950: 7). As a magic animal, the dragon is able to shrink to the size of a silkworm; and then again it can swell up till it ﬁlls the space between heaven and earth. It can be visible or invisible, as it chooses (Eberhard 1986: 84). In China, the emperor was often described in terms of the dragon. He is said to have a “dragon face,” to sit on a “dragon throne,” and to wear “dragon robes.” The image of the ﬁve-toed dragon was reserved for the emperor. 7. Ming Dynasty Dragon Jar

China, Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE), early 15th century Porcelain painted in underglaze blue 19 in. Metropolitan Museum of Art (Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Robert E. Tod, 1937 [37.191.1] Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ho/08/eac/ho_37.191.1.htm

This painted jar is from Ming China. Ming porcelains were exported all over Asia: The Central Asians, the Persians, and the peoples of the Middle East prized Ming [1368-1644 CE] porcelains . . . The Persian ruler Shah Abbas (r. 1587-1629) constructed a China house for his magniﬁcent Chinese wares. The Topkapi museum in Istanbul houses over eight thousand Song and Ming porcelains. Some of the Central Asian tribes believed that Chinese porcelains possessed supernatural powers. In Persian miniature paintings of the ﬁfteenth century, “there is hardly a manuscript in which [Chinese] blue and white vessels are not depicted” (Rossabi 1975: 77).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

UNIT 5 – W

347

C. SYMBOLS OF POWER AND PRESTIGE: THE PHOENIX AND THE DRAGON* (continued from the previous page.)

8. Ottoman Drawing of a Dragon

(Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Cora Timken Burnett Collection of Persian Miniatures and Other Persian Art Objects, Bequest of Cora Timken Burnett, 1956 [57.51.26]. Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art) http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/suly/ho_57.51.26.htm

Ottoman, Mid-16th century Turkey Ink, Colors, and Gold on Paper 17 in. wide, 11 in. high Metropolitan Museum of Art

Made with a reed pen, Figure 8 is from Ottoman Turkey. It was done by a leading painter at the sultan’s court. The type of dragon depicted here probably reached Turkey via Iran. By this time, the dragon had been a popular motif in Central and West Asia for centuries. Artists and craftspeople delighted in the curving form of the dragon’s body. Notice how the dragon’s shape contrasts with the curving of the leaves on which it walks. UNIT 5 – W

Learn more about the phoenix and the dragon: http://www.npm.gov.tw/exhbition/dro0001/english/c1main.htm http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/khan4/hd_khan4.htm

For a look at imaginary animals in the art of many cultures, you can go to http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hi/a.htm

(Scroll down to “Animals” and click on “Mythological.”)

348

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

Artifact Analysis Worksheet Name of Artifact: 1. Type of artifact: Describe the material from which it was made—bone, pottery, metal, wood, stone, leather, glass, paper, cardboard, cotton, wood, plastic, or other material. 2. Describe how it looks: Shape, color, texture, size, weight, movable parts, anything printed, stamped or written on it.

3. Uses of the artifact: A. What might it have been used for? B. Who might have used it? C. Where might it have been used? D. When might it have been used?

Cultural Diffusion Worksheet Label each object: A = The object that contributes the new motif, etc. B = The object that adopts the new motif, etc.

1. How is A similar to B? (Size, shape, function, material, etc.) 2. How is A different from B? 3. What does A contribute to B? UNIT 5 – W

Glossary4 Iconography: The traditional images or symbols associated with a subject, especially a religious or legendary subject. Motif: A motif is an “individual decorative element in a design.” Motifs are the building blocks of patterns. Pattern: Ornamental designs composed of repeated or combined motifs.

Most of these glossary entries are cited (or adapted) from the Getty Art and Architecture Thesaurus on Line (http://www.getty.edu/research/tools/vocabulary/aat).

PART II Curriculum Units — From Silk to Oil: 5. Art Along The Silk Roads

349

Glossary

Abbasid caliphate: The Abbasids (750-1258), with their capital in Baghdad, ruled an empire stretching from Africa to Central Asia. Their encouragement of literature, philosophy, the sciences, and the arts made this period a golden age of Islamic culture. Bodhisattva (“Enlightenment Being”): Central ﬁgure in Mahayana Buddhism. Although able to enter nirvana, the Bodhisattva remains in the world to save all living things from suffering. Caliph (khalifa): Successors to Muhammad and leaders of the Muslim community. Central Asia: Xinjiang (China’s largest province), Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and northern Afghanistan. Chinggis Khan (1167-1227) ﬁrst united the tribes of Mongolia in the early thirteenth century. Dunhuang: City in western Gansu province where the two branches of the Silk Roads circling the Tarim Basin come together. In addition to being an important commercial town, from 366 CE until the 14th century, Dunhuang was a center of Buddhism. East Turkestan: Older name for Xinjiang, the part of Central Asia now within the People’s Republic of China. Emperor Wu (r. 141-87 BCE): Han dynasty ruler whose aggressive foreign policy sought to destroy the Xiongnu confederation that threatened China’s northern frontier. During his reign, Confucianism was established as state orthodoxy. Eurasia: The continent of Europe and Asia. Four Noble Truths: The core of Buddhist doctrine emphasizing the universality of suffering and the path to liberation. Five Precepts: The basic concepts adhered to by all Buddhists—Do not kill; do not steal; don’t engage in sexual misconduct; do not lie; don’t use alcohol or drugs. Golden Horde, Empire of the: Mongol-ruled domain established in the wake of the thirteenth century conquest of Russia. Guanyin (Guanshiyin): Mahayana Buddhist Goddess of Mercy, widely worshipped in East Asia. Hijra (Migration): In 622 Muhammad and his followers left Mecca for Medina. This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar and the Muslim religious community (umma). Hui: Chinese-speaking Muslims, thought to be of Persian and Central Asian origin. Ilkhanid dynasty (1256-1353): Mongol rulers of the Middle East and parts of Central Asia. Inner Asia: In addition to Central Asia (see entry, above), Inner Asia consists of southern Siberia, Inner Mongolia, Mongolia, and Tibet.

Glossary

351

Islam: Arabic for “surrender” or “submission.” A Muslim is “one who has surrendered” to God. Jataka Tales: From the Sanskrit root “jan,” meaning “to be born.” The 550 Jataka Tales (“Birth Stories”) are believed to be about the former lives of the Buddha. Ka’aba: The sanctuary in Mecca that is the most sacred place in Islam. Every Muslim making the pilgrimage to Mecca walks around the Ka’aba seven times. Karez: A traditional irrigation system used in the Middle East and Central Asia. Karez rely on gravity to transport water through underground tunnels. Kazakhs: Formerly a nomadic people, the Kazakhs are the second most numerous Turkic group in Central Asia. Khubilai Khan (1215-1294): Grandson of Chinggis Khan and ﬁrst ruler of China’s Mongol Yuan dynasty (1368-1644). Kushans: The Kushans controlled parts of northwest India, Pakistan, and Central Asia from the second century BCE to the third century CE. Their domains included the southern route of the Silk Roads across the Tarim Basin. Manichaeism: A religion founded by the Mesopotamia-born prophet Manes (third century CE) that spread throughout the Middle East and Central Asia. Manicheasism emphasized the struggle between good (light) and evil (darkness). Mogao Caves: Near Dunhuang in Gansu province. Over ﬁve hundred in number, they serve as a living museum of Buddhist art. The artworks, manuscripts, and other objects found there reﬂect both the ﬂourishing of Buddhism along the Silk Roads and the multi-ethnic character of Silk Roads culture. Nestorian Christianity: The view that Christ consisted of both a human and a divine person as espoused by Nestorius, a Syrian bishop of the ﬁfth century. Nestorianism was brought as far east as China by Iranian merchants and missionaries. Oasis: Desert areas having water supplies able to support vegetation. The water comes from rainfall in mountain ranges that feed underground springs. These underground springs can travel for hundreds of miles to water the oases. Parthian dynasty (247 BCE-224 CE): At its height, the Parthian empire controlled Iran, most of the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia. They were key middleman in early Silk Roads trade. Pastoralism: Lifestyle based on raising horses, sheep, and cattle. Pax Mongolica: The period during the thirteenth century when Mongol-ruled domains brought relative peace to the entire Eurasian continent. Period of Disunion (third to sixth centuries): Also called the Six Dynasties period. A time when nonChinese peoples ruled the north and Chinese refugees controlled the south. Porcelain: Hard and translucent ceramic that rings like a bell when struck. Sasanian dynasty (224-651): One of the most powerful empires to rule the Iranian plateau and eastern part of the Fertile Crescent.

352

Glossary

Sericulture: The raising of silkworms for their cocoons. The basis of silk production. Shahada: The basic declaration of Muslim faith proclaiming that “There is no god but God. Muhammad is the messenger of God.” Shi’a: Arabic for “faction” or “sect.” Followers of Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law and the fourth caliph, whose murder ushered in the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750). His followers (predominantly in Iran and Iraq) regard him as a deputy of God rather than a secular ruler. The major religious schism in Islam. Sunni: The Muslim majority, as opposed to the Shi’a. Sogdians: An Iranian people from Central Asia. Between the fourth and ninth centuries they were probably the most important merchants trading along the Silk Roads. Steppe: Plains consisting of grass and scrubland with high mountain ranges. The Eurasian steppe stretches from the borders of Manchuria westward to the Black Sea and the plains of Hungary. Transoxiana (or Transoxania): Old name for the Central Asian region lying between the Amu Darya (Oxus) and Syr Darya (Jaxartes) rivers. Tribute system: Policy whereby the imperial Chinese state dealt with nomadic peoples along its northern frontier. Tributary states acknowledged subservience to China and its emperor, presented token gifts, and sent hostages to the Chinese court. In return, steppe nomads and other foreigners received silk, cash, gold jewelry and ornaments, and the right to trade at frontier markets. Turks: The people of modern Turkey are only one of many Turkic peoples. Today, speakers of Turkic languages live not only in Turkey, but also in Central Asia, northwest China, Iran, Afghanistan, and Russia. Umayyad caliphate (661-750): The ﬁrst Muslim dynasty, with its capital in Damascus. Umma: The Muslim community. Uyghurs: The Turkic/Muslim inhabitants of China’s Xinjiang province. West Turkestan: Older name for the part of Central Asia now consisting of the ﬁve Islamic republics of the former Soviet Union plus northern Afghanistan. Western Regions: The traditional Chinese name for Central Asia. Xinjiang: China’s largest province, setting for the northern and southern Silk Roads routes around the Taklamakan desert. Xiongnu: A pastoral nomadic people from Mongolia that established an empire during the third century BCE. They were the main foreign policy problem of the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE). Yurt (ger): A portable felt-covered tent used by Inner Asian nomadic peoples. Zoroastrianism: The official religion of the Sasanian empire (224-651). The prophet Zoroaster (believed to have lived anywhere from the thirteenth to the sixth century BCE) promoted worship of a single god, Ahura Mazda.

Glossary

353

Bibliography

Allsen, Thomas. 1987. Mongol Imperialism. Berkeley: University of California Press. Allsen, Thomas. 2001. Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Allworth, Edward. 1994. “Commensals or Parasites? Russians, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Others in Central Asia.” In Beatrice F. Manz, ed. Central Asia in Historical Perspective. Boulder CO: Westview Press, 1994, pp. 185-201. Allworth, Edward. 1994. “The Focus of Literature.” In Edward Allworth, ed. Central Asia—130 Years of Russian Dominance, A Historical Overview. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Allworth, Edward. 1994. “The New Central Asians.” In Edward Allworth (ed.), Central Asia—130 Years of Russian Dominance, A Historical Overview. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Altoma, Reef. 1994. “The Inﬂuence of Islam in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan.” In Beatrice F. Manz, ed. Central Asia in Historical Perspective. Boulder CO: Westview Press, 1994, pp. 164-181. Archnet. Dictionary of Islamic Architecture Website: http://archnet.org/library/dictionary Auezov, Mukhtar. Website: http://www.kz/eng/auezov/auezov1.html Barﬁeld, Thomas J. 1989. The Perilous Frontier. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Beal, Samuel . 1969. Si-Yu-Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World. 2 Vols. Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint. Benewick, Robert. 1999. State of China Atlas. London: Penguin Reference Books. Billows, Richard A. 1997. “The Spread of Power: Empires East and West.” In Ainslie T. Embree and Carol Gluck, eds. Asia in Western and World History. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, pp. 265-279. Birrell, Anne. 1993. Popular Songs and Ballads of Han China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Bloom, Jonathan M. 2001. Paper Before Print—The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World. New Haven: Yale University Press. Bonavia, Judy. 1988. The Silk Road—From Xi’an to Kashgar. Hong Kong: Odyssey Publications Ltd. 354

Bibliography

Boulnois, Luce, et al. 2004. Silk Road: Monks, Warriors, and Merchants on the Silk Road. Hong Kong: Odyssey. Brinker, Helmut. 1998. “Transﬁguring Divinities: Buddhist Sculpture in China.” In Howard Rogers, ed. China: 5000 Years, Innovation and Transformation in the Arts. New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, pp. 144-158. Bryant, Daniel. 2001. “Poetry of the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries.” In Victor S. Mair, ed. The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 399-409. Buddhanet. Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. Website: http://www.buddhanet.net Ch’en, Kenneth. 1964. Buddhism in China. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Christian, David . 1998. A History of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia, Vol. 1. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Chu, Pingyi. Boundaries Crossing: Western Astronomy in Confucian China, 1600-1800. Institute for Advanced Studies, Princeton University. Website: http://www.admin.ias.edu/hssem/pingyi.html Conze, Edward, tr. 1959. Buddhist Scriptures. New York: Penguin Books. Cressey, George Babco*ck. 1934. China’s Geographic Foundations. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Cressey, George Babco*ck. 1957. “Water in the Desert,”Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 47(2): 105-124. Cullen, Christopher. 1996. Astronomy and Mathematics in Ancient China: the Zhou bi suan jing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dar, Saifu Rahman. 2000. “Caravansarais along the Grand Trunk Road in Pakistan: A Central Asian Legacy.” In Vadime Elisseeff, ed. The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. New York: Berghahn Books. Davis, Richard H. 1999. “Religions of India in Practice.” In Donald S. Lopez, ed. Asian Religions in Practice—An Introduction. Princeton: Princeton University Press. de Bary, W.T. and Irene Bloom. 1999. Sources of Chinese Tradition, Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press. Denny, Frederick Mathewson. 1994. An Introduction to Islam. New York: Macmillan Publishing. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ: http://www.pearsoned.com/ Dunhuang Research Institute (comp.). 2000. Dunhuang—A Centennial Commemoration of the Discovery of the Cave Library. Beijing: Morning Glory Publishers.

Bibliography

355

Dudbridge, Glen. 1998. “Buddhist images in action—Five stories from the Tang.” Cahiers d’Extreme-Asie 10, Ecole Francaise D’Extreme-Orient: 377-392. Dunn, Ross E. 1986. The Adventures of Ibn Battuta. London: Croom Helm. EASIA. Asia For Educators, Columbia University. Website http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/mongols

Eberhard, Wolfram. 1986. A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols. London: Routledge. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. 1993. Chinese Civilization—A Sourcebook. New York: The Free Press. EconEdLink. National Council of Economic Education. Website: http://www.econedlink.org Economist 1999. “Central Asia—The Shrinking Hordes.” The Economist, April 3rd, 1999, p. 36. EIA. U.S. Energy Information Administration. Website: http://eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contentsnjava.html

Farmer, Edward L., et al. 1986. Comparative History of Civilizations in Asia, Vol. 1. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Fisher, Robert E. 1993. Buddhist Art and Architecture. London: Thames and Hudson. Frye, Richard Nelson. 1963. The Heritage of Persia. London: Weidenfeld. Gernet, Jacques. 1995. Buddhism in Chinese Society. New York: Columbia University Press. Ghose, Rajeshwari, ed. 1998. In the Footsteps of the Buddha—An Iconic Journey from India to China. Hong Kong: University Museum and Art Gallery, The University of Hong Kong. Gibb, H.A.R., tr. 1969. Ibn Battuta—Travels in Asia and Africa. New York: Augustus M. Kelley. Gillette, Maris Boyd. 2000. Between Mecca and Beijing: Modernization and Consumption Among Urban Chinese Muslims. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000. Gladney, Dru. 1991. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People’s Republic. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

356

Bibliography

Hsieh, Chiao-min and Jean Kan Hsieh. 1995. China—A Provincial Atlas. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan. Ho Peng-yoke. 1969. “The Astronomical Bureau in Ming China.” Journal of Asian History 3.2: 137-157. Huc, Evariste Rege, and Joseph Gabet. 1998. Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China During the Years 1844-1846. 2 Vols. Reprint edition: New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. IEA 1998. International Energy Agency. Website: http://www.iea.org Jackson, Peter and Laurence Lockhart, eds. 1986. The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Khazanov, A.M. 1998. “Underdevelopment and Ethnic Relations in Central Asia.” In Beatrice F. Manz, ed. Central Asia in Historical Perspective. Boulder CO: Westview Press, pp. 144-163. Komaroff, Linda and Stefano Carboni. 2002. The Legacy of Genghis Khan. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Langlois, John D. 1981. China Under Mongol Rule. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Lapidus, Ira M. 1988. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Latham, Ronald. 1958. The Travels of Marco Polo. London: Penguin Books. Lattimore, Owen.1962. Studies in Frontier History: Collected Papers 1928-1958. London: Oxford University Press. Ledyard, Gari. 1963. “Two Mongol Documents from the Koryo Sa.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 83.2: 225-239. Lee, Peter H., and Wm. Theodore de Bary, eds. 1997. Sources of Korean Tradition. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press. Lee, Sherman E. 1973. A History of Far Eastern Art. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Li, Guishan. 1998. Frescoes and Fables: Mural stories from the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang. Beijing: New World Press. Life of Hsuan-Tsang. 1959. Compiled by Hui-li. Peking: The Chinese Buddhist Association. Lipman, Jonathan. 1997. Familiar Strangers—A History of Muslims in Northwest China. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Bibliography

357

Liu, Xinru 1988. Ancient India and Ancient China: Trade and Religious Exchanges AD 1- 600. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Loewe, Michael and Edward L. Shaughnessy, eds. 1999. The Cambridge History of Ancient China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lopez, Donald S. 1999. Asian Religions in Practice. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Mackerras, Colin. 1990. “The Uighurs.” In Denis Sinor, ed. The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 320-342. Mair, Victor. 1994. The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press. Major, John. 1995. The Silk Route—7,000 Miles of History. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. Manz, Beatrice F. 1994. “Historical Background.” In Beatrice F. Manz, ed. Central Asia in Historical Perspective. Boulder CO: Westview Press, pp. 4-22. Miscevic, Nenad. 2001. “Nationalism,” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta, ed. MMA. Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 A.D.)—The Legacy of Ghenghis Khan. Website: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yuan/hod_1993.256.htm MMA. Metropolitan Museum of Art. China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Website: http://www.metmuseum.org/special/China/index.asp

Morgan, David. 1986. The Mongols. New York: Basil Blackwell. Naquin, Susan, and Chün-fang Yü, eds. 1992. Pilgrimages and Sacred Sites in China. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. NASA. NASA Website on the solar eclipse of August 11, 1999. http://eclipse99.nasa.gov/pages/traditions_Calendars.html

Needham, Joseph. 1959. Science and Civilization in China; Vol. 3, Sect. 19-25, “Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and Earth.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. New York Times. November 19, 2000. “Deﬁant Chinese Muslims Keep Their Own Time” (Elizabeth Rosenthal). Nickel, Lucas, ed. 2002. The Return of the Buddha—Buddhist Sculptures of the 6th Century from Qingzhou, China. Zürich: Museum Reitberg Zürich.

358

Bibliography

Olcott, Martha Brill. 1987. The Kazakhs. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press. Olschki, Leonardo. 1960. Marco Polo’s Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press. Owen, Stephen. 1996. An Anthology of Chinese Literature—Beginnings to 1911. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Parthia. Parthian Empire. Website: http://www.parthia.com Peters, F.E. 1994. A Reader on Classical Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Plaks, Andrew H. 1994. “The Journey to the West.” In Barbara Stoler Miller, ed. Masterworks of Asian Literature in Comparative Perspective. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, pp. 272-284. Przheval’skii, Nikolai Mikhailovich. 1876. Mongolia, The Tangut Country, And The Solitudes Of Northern Tibet, Being A Narrative Of Three Years’ Travel In Eastern High Asia. London: S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington. Puri, B.N. 1987. Buddhism in Central Asia. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Qu’ran. 1993. Al-Qur’an. A Contemporary Translation by Ahmed Ali. Princeton: Princeton University Press. de Rachewiltz, Igor. 1993. In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yuan Period (1200-1300). Weisbaden: Harassowitz. Rahula, Walpola. 1974. What the Buddha Taught. New York: Grove Press. Rawson, Jessica, ed. 1992. The British Museum Book of Chinese Art. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc. Rossabi, Morris. 1975. China and Inner Asia—From 1368 to the Present Day. New York: Pica Press. Rossabi, Morris. 1988. Khubilai Khan—His Life and Times. Berkeley: University of California Press. Rossabi, Morris. 1990. “The ‘Decline’ of the Central Asian Caravan Trade.” In James D. Tracy, ed. The Rise of Merchant Empires. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 351-370. Rossabi, Morris. 2002. “The Mongols and Their Legacy.” In Linda Komaroff and Stefano Carboni, eds. The Legacy of Genghis Khan—Courtly Art and Culture in West Asia, 1256-1353. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp. 12-35.

Bibliography

359

Rudelson, Justin Jon. 1997. Oasis Identities: Uyghur Nationalism Along China’s Silk Road. New York: Columbia University Press. Saliba, George. 1994. A History of Arabic Astronomy—Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York: New York University Press. Saliba, George. 1997. “Interfusion of Asian and Western Cultures: Islamic Civilization and Europe to 1500.” In Ainslie T. Embree and Carol Gluck, eds. Asia in Western and World History, Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, pp. 40-54. Schafer, Edward. 1963. Golden Peaches of Samarkand. Berkeley: University of California Press. Schirokauer, Conrad. 1991. A Brief History of Chinese Civilization. New York: Harcourt Brace & Company. Reprinted with permission of Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning: http://www.thomson.com Fax 800-730-2215 Shagdar, Bira. 2000. “The Mongol Empire in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries.” In Vadime Elisseeff, ed. The Silk Roads. New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 126-144. Silk Road Foundation. Website: http://www.silkroadfoundation.org Silk Road Seattle. “Horses and Camels” Website: http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/exhibit/trade/horcamae.html

Silk Road Seattle. “Notes on the History of Dunhuang” Website: http://www.depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/cities/china/dh/dhhist.html

Silk Road Seattle. “Traditional Cultures in Central Asia” Website: http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/culture/culture.html

de Silva, Lynn A. 1974. Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices in Sri Lanka. Colombo: De Silva. Sims-Williams, Nicholas. 2001. From “Sogdian Ancient Letter No. 2.” In Nicholas Sims-Williams, tr. The Sogdian Ancient Letters, Silk Road Seattle Website: http://www.depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/sogdlet.html Sivin, Nathan. 1990. “Science and Medicine in Chinese History.” In Paul S. Ropp, ed. The Heritage of China. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 164-196. Sivin, Nathan. 1995. Internet version of “Copernicus in China.” From Science in Ancient China. Brookﬁeld, VT: Variorum, 1995. Website: http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~nsivin/cop.html Steele, Valerie, and John S. Major. 1999. China Chic—East Meets West. New Haven: Yale University Press. Stein, Marc Aurel. 1921. Serindia: Detailed Report of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China. Oxford, Clarendon Press. Microﬁm version from the Toyo Bunko Archive Website: http://tibet.que.ne.jp/misc/EBTIpaper/node17.html 360

Bibliography

Steinhardt, Nancy Shatzman. 1984. Chinese Traditional Architecture. New York: China Institute in America. Soucek, Svat. 2000. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sullivan, Michael. 1984. The Arts of China. Berkeley: University of California Press. al-Tabari. 1992. The History of al-Tabari. Vol. XII. The The Battle of al-Qadisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine. Yohanan Friedmann, tr. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. al-Tabari. 1994. The History of al-Tabari. Vol XIV. The Conquest of Iran. G. Rex Smith, tr. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Thompson, Laurence G. 1996. Chinese Religion—An Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Thorley, J. 1971. “The Silk Trade Between China and the Roman Empire at Its Height, Circa A.D. 90-130.” Greece and Rome. Series 2. 18: 71-80. TRN. “About the Boreal/Taiga,” Taiga Rescue Network. Website: http://www.taigarescue.org/index.php?view_article=70

Tucker, Jonathan. 2003. The Silk Road: Art and History. Chicago: Art Media Resources, Ltd. Waley, Arthur 1958. Monkey. New York: Grove Press. Water History. International Water History Association. Website: http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats Watson, Burton, tr. 1961. Records of the Grand Historian of China, Vol. 2. New York: Columbia University Press. Watt, James C.Y. 2002. “A Note on Artistic Exchanges in the Mongol Empire.” In Linda Komaroff and Stefano Carboni, eds. The Legacy of Genghis Khan—Courtly Art and Culture in West Asia, 1256-1353. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, pp. 62-73. Watt, W. Montgomery. 1968. What is Islam? New York: Frederick A. Praeger. Whitﬁeld, Roderick, Susan Whitﬁeld, and Neville Agnew. 2000. Cave Temples at Mogao: Art and History on the Silk Road. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute and the J. Paul Getty Museum. Whitﬁeld, Susan. 1999. Life Along the Silk Road. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Bibliography

361

Wilhelm, Richard. 1950. The I Ching or Book of Changes. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Wriggins, Sally. 1996. Xuanzang—A Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Wulff, H.E. 1968. “The Qanats of Iran.” Scientiﬁc American (April 1968): 94-105. Website: http://users.bart.nl/~leenders/txt/qanats.html

WWF Russia. Russian branch of the World Wildlife Federation. Website: http://www.wwf.ru/about/where_we_work/asia/tugai/eng

Yu, Anthony C. 1977. The Journey to the West, Vol. 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Yü, Chün-fang. 2001. Kuan-yin—The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara. New York: Columbia University Press. Zürcher, Erik. 1995. “Buddhist Art in Medieval China: The Ecclesiastical View.” In K.R. van Kooij and H. van der Veere, eds. Function and Meaning in Buddhist Art. Groningen, Netherlands: Egbert Forst. Zwalf, W., ed. 1985. Buddhism: Art and Faith. London: British Museum.

362

Bibliography

Additional Resources

PRINT RESOURCES FOR EDUCATORS Adshead, S.A.M. 1998. China in World History. New York: St. Martin’s Press. American Forum for Global Education. 2002. Spotlight on Inner Asia: The Bizarre Bazaar. New York: American Forum for Global Education. Amster, Martin, and Lier Chen. 2004. “Buddhist Art Styles and Cultural Exchange Along the Silk Road.” Education About Asia 9.1 (Spring 2004): 30-35. Benewick, Robert. 1999. State of China Atlas. London: Peguin Reference Books. Christian, David. Spring 2000. “Silk Road or Steppe Roads? The Silk Roads in World History,” Journal of World History, vol. 2. Delacour, Catherine. 2001. “The Role of the Horse and the Camel in Chinese Expansion Along Western Trade Routes.” Orientations 32.1, 50-57. Di Cosmo, Nicola. 2004. Ancient China and Its Enemies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dillion, Michael. 1996. China’s Muslims. London: Oxford University Press. Elisseeff, Vadime (ed.) 2000. The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. New York: Berghahn Books; Paris: UNESCO Publishing. Foltz, Richard. 1999. Religions of the Silk Road. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Fraiser, Sarah. 2003. Performing the Visual: The Practice of Buddhist Wall Painting in China and Central Asia, 618-960. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Fyre, Richard N. 1996. The Heritage of Central Asia: From Antiquity to the Turkish Expansion. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers. Grousset, Rene. 1989. The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.

Additional Resources

363

Hartel, Herbert. 1982. Along the Ancient Silk Routes: Central Asian Art from the West Berlin State Museums. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Hopkirk, Peter. 1984. Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Cities and Treasures of Chinese Central Asia. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Juliano, Annette L. 2001. Monks and Merchants: Silk Road Treasures from Northwest China, Gansu and Ningxia Provinces, FourthSeventh Century. New York: Asia Society. Karetzky, Patricia E. 2000. Early Buddhist Narrative: Art Illustrations of the Life of Buddha from Central Asia to China, Korea and Japan. New York: University Press of America Kesser, Adam T. 1997. Empires beyond the Great Wall: The Heritage of Genghis Khan. Los Angeles: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. Kitagawa, Joseph M. and Mark D. Cummings, eds. 1989. Buddhism and Asian History. New York: Macmillan Company. Liu, Xinru. 1995. Ancient India and Ancient China: Trade and Religious Exchanges AD 1-600. New York: Oxford University Press. MacAulay, David. 2003. Mosque. New York: Houghton Mifflin. Mayhew, Bradley, Richmond, Simon, and Richard Plunkett. 2000 Central Asia. Berkeley, CA: Lonely Planet Publications. McColl, Robert W. 1991. “China’s Modern Silk Road.” FOCUS, 44, no. 2. Michell, George, ed. 1998. Islamic Art and Architecture. The World of Art Series. New York: Thames & Hudson. Robinson, Richard H. and Willard L. Johnson. 1982. The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co. Rossabi, Morris. 2005. Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists. Berkeley: University of California Press. Rossabi, Morris. 1987. “Islam in China” in Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 7. New York: Macmillian, pp. 377-390. Sinor, Denis. 1990. The Cambridge History of Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smith, Jonathan and William Scott, et al., eds. 1995. The Harper Collins Dictionary of Religion. San Francisco, CA: Harper San Francisco.

364

Additional Resources

Starr, S. Frederick, ed.. 2004. Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe Inc. Tracy, James, ed. 1990. The Rise of the Merchant Empires. New York: Cambridge University Press. Vainker, S.J. 2004. Chinese Silk: A Cultural History. New Brunswick, NJ: British Museum and Rutgers University Press, Waley, Arthur. 1960. Ballads and Stories from Tun-Huang: An Anthology. London: George Allen & Unwin. Wardwell, Anne E., and James C. Y. Watt. 1998. When Silk Was Gold: Central Asian and Chinese Textiles. New Haven: Yale University Press. Weng, Wei-Chuan and Peter Yung. 1987. Xinjiang, the Silk Road: Islam’s Overland Route to China. London: Oxford University Press. Whitﬁeld, Roderick; Farrer, Anne. 1990. Caves of the Thousand Buddhas: Chinese Art from the Silk Route. (eds. Farrer, Anne; Vainker, S. J.; Rawson, Jessica). London: British Museum Publications, Ltd. Whitﬁeld, Roderick, Susan Whitﬁeld, and Neville Agnew. 2001. Cave Temples of Mogao: Art and History on the Silk Road. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. Whitﬁeld, Susan. et al. 2004. The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War, and Faith. Chicago: Serindia Publications. Whitﬁeld, Susan. 2004. Aurel Stein on the Silk Road. Chicago: Serindia Publications. Wood, Frances. 1992. Blue Guide: China. New York: W.W. Norton. Wood, Frances. 2003. The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. California: University of California Press Wood, Frances. 1998. Did Marco Polo go to China? New York: Westview Press. Zwalf, W. 1985. Buddhism: Art and Faith. London: British Museum.

Additional Resources

365

WEBSITES FOR EDUCATORS BRITISH LIBRARY

The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War, and Faith. This exhibition brought together manuscripts, paintings, artifacts and textiles. http://www.bl.uk/whatson/exhibitions/silkroad/main.html CENTRAL ASIA RESOURCES http://www.orientarch.uni-halle.de/ca/cares.htm EURASIANET

EurasiaNet is operated by the Central Eurasia Project of the Open Society Institute. The site offers news and information about the countries of the Caucasus and Central Asia. http://www.EurasiaNet.org INTERACTIVE CENTRAL ASIA RESOURCE PROJECT (ICARP)

This site provides materials on Central Asian history and culture, and includes over one thousand annotated links. http://www.icarp.com INTERNATIONAL DUNHUANG PROJECT

Manuscripts, paintings, and artifacts from Dunhuang and other Silk Road sites. http://idp.bl.uk MENALIB: MIDDLE EAST VIRTUAL LIBRARY

This virtual library provides access to online resources and digital records of printed and other offline media related to Middle East and Islamic Studies. http://ssgdoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/vlib/html/index.html MUSLIM HERITAGE

A comprehensive Muslim heritage database. http://www.muslimheritage.com/about/why.cfm NATION MASTER

This site provides comprehensive encyclopedic proﬁles of all the world’s nations. http://www.nationmaster.com SAUDI ARAMCO WORLD

The goal of this bimonthly magazine is to broaden knowledge of the cultures, history and geography of the Arab and Muslim worlds and their connections with the West. http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/about.us THE SILK ROAD FOUNDATION http://www.silk-road.com SILK ROAD SEATTLE http://www.depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/index.shtml TIMES OF CENTRAL ASIA

Search for the latest news by country, region and topic. http://www.times.kg/

366

Additional Resources

China and Asia-Related Outreach Centers

American Forum for Global Education New York, NY (212) 624-1300 http://www.globaled.org Resources and programs to help schools internationalize curriculum; develops curriculum (free on-line downloads and for purchase); study tours. Asia for Educators, including the East Asian Curriculum Project (EACP) Columbia University New York, NY (212) 854-1735 http://afe.easia.columbia.edu Available K-12 materials include teacher’s guides, multimedia lesson plans, primary documents, and DBQs; study tours and institutes for teachers. Asia Society New York, NY (212) 327-9227 http://www.AskAsia.org http://www.AsiaSociety.org http://www.AsiaSource.org Building awareness of the Asian-Pacific region; K-12 programs and materials include professional conferences, curriculum units, web links, exhibitions, lectures, and films. Asian Educational Media Service (AEMS) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Champaign, IL (888) 828-2367 http://www.aems.uiuc.edu Helps K-12 teachers incorporate audio-visual material into the curriculum; database; library; video collection; publications; training workshops. Asian Studies Outreach Program University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA (412) 648-7763 http://www.ucis.pitt.edu/asp/educational_outreach.html Programs and resources available for K-16 educators include lectures, workshops, resource library, and curriculum materials.

Association for Asian Studies (AAS) University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI (734) 665-2490 http://www.aasianst.org Seeks to facilitate exchange of information through regional conferences, annual meetings, seminars, and publications such as Education About Asia, a resource journal for educators. Center for Advanced Study of International Development (CASID) Michigan State University East Lansing, MI (517) 353-5925 http://www.isp.msu.edu/CASID/outreach.html Promotes the internationalization of curriculum through workshops, summer institutes, resources, and classroom aids. Center for Asian and Pacific Studies (CAPS) University of Oregon Eugene, OR (541) 346-1521 http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~caps K-12 activities and resources including workshops, lectures, institutes, conferences, and grant opportunities for scholars and educators. Center for Russia, East Europe, and Central Asia (CREECA) University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI (608) 262-3379 http://www.wisc.edu/creeca Programs include lectures, workshops, sending speakers to schools, and cultural events. Center for Teaching International Relations (CTIR) University of Denver Denver, Co (800) 967-2847 http://www.du.edu/ctir Aims to internationalize K-12 curriculum by providing educators with lesson plan development, lending library; professional development conferences and workshops.

China and Asia-Related Outreach Centers

367

Consortium for Teaching Asia and the Pacific in the Schools (CTAPS) University of Hawaii Honolulu, HI (808) 944-7111 http://www.EastWestCenter.org/edu-st.asp Summer residential institutes, travel seminars, teacher exchange programs, performances, and exhibitions.

Five College Center for East Asian Studies Smith College Northampton, MA (413) 585-3751 http://www.smith.edu/fcceas Encouraging the teaching of East Asian cultures: study tours; resource library; newsletter; institutes; conferences; workshops; seminars; lesson plans.

China Institute in America New York, NY (212) 744-8181 http://www.chinainstitute.org/educators/index.html Offers in-service courses, study tours, gallery exhibitions, workshops, seminars, and summer institutes.

Inner Asia and Uralic National Resources Center (IAUNRC) Indiana University Bloomington, IN (812) 856-5263 http://www.indiana.edu/~iaunrc Brings Central Eurasia into the classroom: print and electronic resources; workshops; curriculum material; lending library.

East Asia Program Cornell University Ithaca, NY (607) 255-6222 http://www.einaudi.cornell.edu/eastasia K-12 programs and resources include lectures, conferences, films, performances, workshops, resource lending library, online curriculum. East Asia Resource Center University of Washington Seattle, WA (206) 543-1921 http://www.staff.washington.edu/earc Seminars and study tours; workshops; lectures; curriculum development assistance; newsletter; curriculum materials; books. East Asian Studies Center Indiana University Bloomington, IN (812) 855-3765 http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/about Outreach activities for scholars, K-12 educators and students; language pedagogy programs; film series; cultural workshops; study tours; regional conferences; lending library. East Asian Studies Program Princeton University Princeton, NJ (609) 258-4279 http://www.princeton.edu/~eastasia Lectures; weekend lessons in Chinese and Japanese; workshops; films.

368

China and Asia-Related Outreach Centers

Institute of East Asian Studies University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA (510) 642-2809 http://ieas.berkeley.edu Weeklong summer institutes, speakers, electronic mentors, resource materials, lending library, seminars, conferences, and publications. The Mansfield Freeman Center for East Asian Studies (FEAS) Wesleyan University Middletown, CT (860) 685-2330 http://www.wesleyan.edu/east/mansfieldf/mansfield.html Art exhibitions; colloquia; Japanese-style garden and tatami room; video collection. National Geographic Society Washington, D.C. (800) 647-5463 http://www.nationalgeographic.com/education On-site and online instructional material and programs on geography and human geography, interactive Web programs, curriculum units, downloadable maps. Program for Teaching East Asia University of Colorado Boulder, CO (303) 735-5122 http://www.colorado.edu/CAS/TEA Summer institutes and study tours; curriculum consultants; web resources; workshops; resource room.

Programs in International Educational Resources (PIER), East Asian Studies Yale University New Haven, CT (203) 432-6253 http://www.yale.edu/ycias/pier K-12 activities and resources include summer institutes, lectures, language and culture consultations, professional development, study abroad, and a resource library.

Stanford Program on International and CrossCultural Education (SPICE) Stanford University Stanford, CA (800) 578-1114 http://spice.stanford.edu Multidisciplinary curricula on international and cross-cultural themes for use in K-14; free online lesson plans; seminars.

Outreach Asia Center of Asian Studies University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX (512) 475-6038 or (512) 471-5811 http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/outreach/index.htm Seminars, workshops, and resource lending library.

USC-UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center (JEASC) University of Southern California-University of California Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA USC: (213) 740-2993 UCLA: (310) 825-0007 http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/EASC/ http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/default.htm Seminars throughout the greater Los Angeles area; twoweek summer workshops; conferences; exhibitions; speakers; educational resources.

Museums Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Freer Gallery of Art Smithsonian Institution Washington, DC (202) 633-4880 http://www.asia.si.edu Guided tours of permanent and temporary exhibitions; curriculum packets for loan and purchase; lectures; films; hands-on demonstrations; performances of dance and music. Asian Art Museum of San Francisco San Francisco, CA (415) 581-3500 http://www.asianart.org Guided tours of exhibitions, lectures, films, workshops, access to resource center, hands-on demonstrations, and inter-museum loan. Cleveland Museum of Art Cleveland, OH (888) 262-0033 http://www.clemusart.com/educatn Workshops; guided tours; in-service programs; slide packets (for loan and purchase); free newsletter.

The Crow Collection of Asian Art Dallas, TX (214) 979-6430 http://www.crowcollection.org Resources and activities include free teacher’s workshops, teaching packets, and school tours. Detroit Institute of Arts Detroit, MI (313) 833-7900 http://www.dia.org Guided tours, lectures, and lesson plans. Kimbell Art Museum Fort Worth, TX (817) 332-8451 http://www.kimbellart.org Guided tours, educational materials, introductions to special exhibitions; free newsletter.

Museums

369

Los Angeles County Museum of Art Los Angeles, CA (323) 857-6000 http://www.lacma.org School tours; programs for special education and learning-disabled students; interactive video learning; high school internships. The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York, NY (212) 879-5500 http://www.metmuseum.org K-12 activities and resources include catalogues and other publications, study center, library, website with comprehensive timeline, photos and slides for rent. Minneapolis Institute of Art Minneapolis, MN (612) 870-3131 http://www.artsmia.org http://www.artsconnected.org/classroom Tours, workshops, a downloadable teacher’s guide, video collection, suggested readings, maps and interactive classroom lessons. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Boston, MA (617) 267-9300 http://www.mfa.org Guided visits; curriculum packets; resource guides (free and for purchase); workshops; free e-newsletter; consultations. Portland Art Museum Portland, OR (503) 276-4225 http://www.portlandartmuseum.org Resource center; guided tours; speaker’s bureau; interactive computer programs; teacher packets for purchase. Rubin Museum of Art Art of the Himalayas 150 West 17th Street New York, NY (212) 620-5000 http://www.rmanyc.org Educational outreach to teachers, families, and the community. K-12 museum visits, lesson plans, and other multidisciplinary activities.

370

Museums

Seattle Asian Art Museum Seattle, WA (206) 654-3208 http://www.seattleartmuseum.org School tours, curriculum development, lectures, seminars, film, resource library.

Acknowledgements and Credits

China Institute expresses appreciation to the following individuals and institutions for the use of their drawings, maps, and photographs. Capital letters indicate the unit(s) in which such materials appear. Aga Khan Visual Archive, MIT http://libraries.mit.edu/guides/subjects/islamicarchitecture/visual/archive.html T, T, T

Ashmolean Museum http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/ I Thomas Barﬁeld Map A Kirby A. Bartlett-Sloan R Judy Bonavia : Map D British Library http://www.bl.uk/ Front Map in Color British Museum http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/ W, W Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc. http://www.buddhanet.net N, N, N, Q Sonja Bunes BUS http://www.sonjabunes.com/exhibitions/sonja_o_sonja04.html F, F Calgary Coin and Antique Gallery http://www.calgarycoin.com I Cambridge University Press http://uk.cambridge.org/ Maps H, I Lier Chen 2, 4, 4, 4, T, T, T, T Cleveland Museum of Art http://www.clevelandart.org/ S, S, S, S, W Collectors’ Heaven http://www.collectorsheaven.at W Coin Invest Trust http://www.coin-invest.li M George Babco*ck Cressey A, B, D, H Conway Library, Courtauld Institute of Art http://www.courtauld.ac.uk/ Q, W Creswell Archive, Ashmolean Museum http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/ O Cultural Relics Publishing House, China http://www.wenwu.com J, V, V, V, V, V Electronic Cultural Atlas Initiative (ECAI) http://ecai.org E EnchantedLearning.com http://www.enchantedlearning.com J, K

Acknowledgements and Credits

371

Phil Endecott C Robert Fiala S, S, S Fine Arts Library, Harvard College Library http://hcl.harvard.edu/finearts/ O, T James A. Flath The Nianhua Gallery http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/history/nianhua/ R Footprints Tours, Ltd http://www.greenkiwi.co.nz/footprints/ P Rex Geissler: GCI http://greatcommission.com T Harcourt Brace & Company http://www.harcourt.com/ Map J Houghton Mifflin Company—Education Place http://www.eduplace.com/ Map B, C, F, G, K Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and Dunhuang Academy http://ignca.nic.in/ P International Energy Agency http://www.iea.org/ L Islamic Paths http://www.islamic-paths.org/home/ O John Murry Publishers C Marleen Kassel 1, 1, 2, 5, 5, A, A, B, C, C, E, Q, T Kimbell Art Museum, Ft. Worth, TX http://www.kimbellart.org/ S Ira M. Lapidus Maps H, I Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/catalog.html Harold Loucks C Nupam Mahajan http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam I MAPS IN MINUTES http://www.mapsinminutes.com/ Front Map The Mariner’s Museum http://www.mariner.org/ K Metropolitan Museum of Art http://www.metmuseum.org/ C, D, E, F, I, J, S, S, S, W, W, W, W Microsoft Encart, http://encarta.msn.com/ T Eric Mose Estate B, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/ A National Geographic Society http://www.nationalgeographic.com/index.html Map E OSCE - Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe http://www.osce.org/ B Paciﬁc Atlantic Coin Company http://www.pacoin.com/ U

372

Acknowledgements and Credits

People’s Daily Online http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/ P Paul Scowen K Seattle Art Museum http://www.seattleartmuseum.org/eMuseum/browseframeset.asp I Sharon Shambourger C, G, G, G Conrad Schirokauer Map J Leland Stanford Junior University http://www.stanford.edu/ G, G, G, T The Threshold Society http://www.sufism.org/ T Denis Titchenell 3, C Toyo Bunko Archive, Marc Aurel Stein http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-5-B2-9/V-4 3, P, P, P United Nations Food & Agriculture Organization (FAO) http://www.fao.org/ B Daniel C. Waugh 1, A, C, C, C, U Welcome to Kazakhstan http://www.kz/eng/auezov/auezov1.html H Augustinus Wibowo Weng Hongming http://www.worldisround.com/browse/search.html?scope=travel&q=Weng+Hongming A, F

Susan Whitﬁeld C Renqiu Yu L, L, N, N, N

Every effort has been made to obtain formal permission for copyrighted material. In some cases, permission was still pending when this book and CD went to press. Source information for each copyrighted image has been carefully noted, including, where possible, relevant URLs. If a publisher spots an error, please accept our apologies and notify us so that a correction can be made in a subsequent edition.

Acknowledgements and Credits

373

About the Essay Authors

Stefano Carboni, curator in the Department of Islamic Art at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, was born in Venice, Italy. He graduated cum laude in Arabic language and Islamic art at the Faculty of Oriental Languages of the University of Venice, followed by a year at the American University in Cairo, before moving to London to pursue post-graduate studies. He earned a doctorate in Islamic art at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London University, in 1992. During his tenure at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, he has been responsible for a large number of international exhibitions, among them the acclaimed Glass of the Sultans and The Legacy of Genghis Khan. As co-editor of The Legacy of Genghis Khan, he won the prestigious Alfred H. Barr prize in 2004. He has also published the catalogue of the Islamic glass collection in the Kuwait National Museum. He is presently working on his biggest exhibition project to date that focuses on the artistic and cultural relationship between Venice and the Islamic world. Morris Rossabi, Professor of History at the City University of New York, received his Ph.D. in Central and East Asian History from Columbia University. His research has centered on China and its neighbors in Inner Asia who were active participants along the Silk Roads. He is the author of Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times (1988); Modern Mongolia: From Khans to Commissars to Capitalists (2005); Governing China’s Multiethnic Frontiers (2004); Voyager from Xanadu (1992); and other books and articles, including the chapters on China and Inner Asia for the authoritative Cambridge History of China. He has also been involved in exhibitions at the Asian Art Museum in San Francisco, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Cleveland Museum of Art. He has traveled extensively along the Silk Roads. George Saliba, Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science, Department of Middle East and Asian Languages and Cultures at Columbia University, received his undergraduate and part of his graduate training at the American University of Beirut, 1963 to 1965, and his MA in 1970 and Ph.D. in 1974 from the University of California, Berkeley. His research focuses on the history of Arabic science from its earliest times till the nineteenth century, with a special emphasis on the development of planetary theories. He is most recently the author of A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam (1994) and Origin and Development of Arabic Scientiﬁc Thought (1998), as well as scores of articles on the history of Arabic astronomy, including “Greek Astronomy and the Medieval Arabic Tradition” in American Scientist (2002). Chun-fang Yu, after a career at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, from 1972 until 2004, is currently Professor and Director of Graduate Studies in the Department of Religion at Columbia University. Born in China, she graduated from Tunghai University in Taiwan with a double major in English Literature and Chinese Philosophy, followed by a M.A. degree in English from Smith College, and a Ph.D. degree in Religion from Columbia University. Her primary ﬁeld of specialization is Chinese Buddhism and Chinese religions, with an interest in the impact of Buddhist thought and practice on Chinese society as well as the impact of Chinese religious traditions on the domestication of Buddhism in China. She is the author of The Renewal of Buddhism in China: Chu-hung and the Late Ming Synthesis (1981; reprint 2003); Kuan-yin: The Chinese Transformation of Avalokitesvara (2001); Encountering the Dharma: Studies on Chinese Buddhism (2004); co-editor with Susan Naquin, Pilgrims and Sacred Sites in China (1992); and contributor of the chapter on “Ming Buddhism” to the Cambridge History of China (1989) and the chapter on Qing Buddhism in the same series (forthcoming). She is completing a study of Buddhist nuns in contemporary Taiwan, focusing on the roles they have played in the revival of Buddhism in Taiwan during the last three decades.

374

About the Essay Authors

About the Project Directors and Editors

Martin Amster (Editor) is Program Coordinator for Curriculum in the Teach China program at China Institute. He received his M.Phil. degree from the East Asian Languages and Cultures Department at Columbia University. Before coming to China Institute, he was on the staff of Columbia University’s Committee on Asia and the Middle East. His interests lie in early Chinese thought and religion, Chinese theories of calligraphy and the arts, and the social history of imperial China. Lier Chen (Editorial Assistant) is Program Administrator in the Teach China program at China Institute. She received her Bachelors degree in history from Wesleyan University and has been working at China Institute since July 2002. She co-authored an article, “Buddhist Art Styles and Cultural Exchange along the Silk Road”, in the Spring 2004 issue of Education about Asia. Her interests include modern and contemporary art, ﬁlm, photography, as well as cultures and peoples along the Silk Roads. Nancy Jervis (Project Director, April 2003 - 2005) is currently Vice President and Director of Education and of the Teach China program at China Institute, where she has worked since 1988. She holds a Ph.D. in anthropology, specializing in China, from Columbia University and is credited with ﬁrst establishing what became the Teach China program at China Institute in 1994. Since 1972, she has been engaged in the longitudinal study of a Chinese village in Henan Province, about which she frequently publishes. Her other activities include teaching and conducting research on Chinese ﬁlm and photography. Marleen Kassel (Project Director, September 2002 - April 2003) holds a Ph.D. in East Asian Languages and Cultures from Columbia University and an M.A. in Chinese Literature from Indiana University. From 1996 to 2003 she was Director of the Teach China program at China Institute, and is currently Director of TeachAsia Programs at Asia Society. She is the author of two books and a variety of articles, and has developed curriculum materials for use in high schools, including a video on world history themes related to contemporary Japan. Ronald G. Knapp (Managing Editor) is SUNY Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the State University of New York at New Paltz. He is the author or editor of more than a dozen books on China’s cultural and historical geography, including most recently Chinese Houses: The Architectural Heritage of a Nation (2005) with photographs by A. Chester Ong; coeditor with Kai-Yin Lo House Home Family: Living and Being Chinese (2005); and editor of Asia’s Old Dwellings: Tradition, Resilience, and Change (2003). Visit his website http://www.newpaltz.edu/~knappr, for additional information. Morris Rossabi (Project Director, April 2003 - 2005) See Essay Authors.

About the Project Directors and Editors

375

About TEACH CHINA

About CHINA INSTITUTE

Visit the China Institute website http://www.chinainstitute.org

FROM SILK OIL CROSS-CULTURAL CONNECTIONS ALONG THE SILK ROADS. A Curriculum Guide for Educators - KIPDF.COM (2024)

FAQs

What were the cultural impacts of the Silk Road? ›

The Silk Road served not only as route for exporting goods such as silk, spices, precious metals, minerals handicrafts, architecture and paintings but also transmitted cultural exchange including theatric performance, dance and music art. The Great Silk Road played moreover a major role in dissemination of religions.

Read On ›

What 3 things did the Silk Road help connect between different civilizations? ›

The growth of silk as a trade item both stimulated and characterized other types of exchanges during the era. Curative herbs, ideas of astronomy, and even religion also moved along the Silk Road network.

How did movement of people, goods, and ideas along the Silk Road aid cultural diffusion and change societies over time? ›

Cultural bridge between East and West. The Silk Road did not only promote commodity exchange but also cultural. For example, Buddhism as one of the religions of the Kushan kingdom reached China. Together with merchant caravans Buddhist monks went from India to Central Asia and China, preaching the new religion.

Learn More Now ›

What are three examples that demonstrate the spread of knowledge and technology along the Silk Road? ›

The ability to produce silk, long gave southern settlements something to trade for horses with northern nomads. Paper was another technology that spread westward, as did moveable type, although it was in Europe that they were most effectively combined. Medical ideas were also shared, often from Islamic sources.

Show Me More ›

What cultural factors caused the growth of the Silk Roads? ›

Advances in technology and increased political stability caused an increase in trade. The opening of more trade routes caused travelers to exchange many things: animals, spices, ideas, and diseases.

Discover More Details ›

What are some examples of cultural diffusion along the Silk Road? ›

The examples of cultural diffusion along the Silk Road Paper making, styles for decorating pottery, religious beliefs such as Buddhism and Islam.

Find Out More ›

What are 3 ways the Silk Road changed the world? ›

It is hard to overstate the importance of the Silk Road on history. Religion and ideas spread along the Silk Road just as fluidly as goods. Towns along the route grew into multicultural cities. The exchange of information gave rise to new technologies and innovations that would change the world.

Read The Full Story ›

What are three reasons why the Silk Road was important? ›

The Silk Road, commonly known as the first global trade route in history, had a scope and importance far greater than the simple exchange of goods. Indeed, the myriad of interconnected routes served as a vehicle for the fruitful exchange of arts, religion, cultures, ideas and technology.

Explore More ›

What two civilizations of the world were connected by the Silk Road? ›

Silk Road, ancient trade route, linking China with the West, that carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and China. Silk went westward, and wools, gold, and silver went east.

How did culture change due to connections on trade routes? ›

As merchants traveled across the world, they carried their traditions with them. The most obvious of these is religion. There were three major religions that spread in this period. Buddhism spread into East and Southeast Asia, Hinduism spread into Southeast Asia, and Islam spread into sub-Saharan Africa and Asia.

Discover More Details ›

What cultural traditions were diffused on the Silk Road? ›

Religions like Christianity , Buddhism , Islam , Hinduism , and even traditional Chinese customs spread via the trade routes, along with goods such as Champa rice (a specific kind of rice resistant to drought).

View Details ›

How has the Silk Road contributed to the development of culture and technology in Central Asia? ›

The Silk Roads facilitated the passage of not only goods to trade but also the knowledge and technology that went into producing them. Foodstuffs were often traded across Central Asia, and with them, an exchange in technologies and agricultural practices too, as well as new crops and even new breeds of animals.

Learn More Now ›

How did silk routes link the world explain with three examples? ›

Even before the Christian period, Chinese pottery found its way to India along these routes, as did textiles and spices from India and Southeast Asia; precious metals, such as gold and silver, flowed from Europe to Asia. Around the same time, trade and cultural interaction took place.

Read On ›

What knowledge was shared on the Silk Road? ›

Science, arts and literature, as well as crafts and technologies were thus shared and disseminated into societies along the lengths of these routes, and in this way, languages, religions, and cultures developed and influenced one another.

See Details ›

What was the culture impact of trading along the trade route? ›

The trade routes were the communications highways of the ancient world. New inventions, religious beliefs, artistic styles, languages, and social customs, as well as goods and raw materials, were transmitted by people moving from one place to another to conduct business.

See Details ›

What were three cultural items traded on the Silk Roads? ›

Silk Road, ancient trade route, linking China with the West, that carried goods and ideas between the two great civilizations of Rome and China. Silk went westward, and wools, gold, and silver went east. China also received Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism (from India) via the Silk Road.

Get More Info Here ›

How did the Silk Road impact religion? ›

The Silk Road provided a network for the spread of the teachings of the Buddha, enabling Buddhism to become a world religion and to develop into a sophisticated and diverse system of belief and practice.

Know More ›

How has the Silk Road impacted us today? ›

How does the Silk Road affect us today? Many items we use every day would be unavailable to us if not for Silk Road trade. At its height during the Tang (tahng) Dynasty (618-907 CE), over 1,000 years ago, the Silk Road gave passage to raw materials and finished goods, but also to ideas, inventions, and religions.

Know More ›

FROM SILK OIL CROSS-CULTURAL CONNECTIONS ALONG THE SILK ROADS. A Curriculum Guide for Educators - KIPDF.COM (2024)

FAQs

What were the cultural impacts of the Silk Road? ›

What cultural traditions were diffused on the Silk Road? ›